The empirical approach of remote sensing has a proven capability to provide timely and accurate information on inland and near-coastal transitional waters. This article gives a thorough review of empirical algorithms for quantitatively estimating a variety of parameters from space-borne, airborne and in situ remote sensors in inland and transitional waters, including chlorophyll-a, total suspended solids, Secchi disk depth (z SD), turbidity, absorption by coloured dissolved organic matter (a CDOM) and other parameters, for example, phycocyanin. Current remote-sensing instruments are also reviewed. The theoretical basis of the empirical algorithms is given using fundamental bio-optical theory of the inherent optical properties (IOPs). Bands, band ratios and band arithmetic algorithms that could be used to produce common biogeophysical products for inland/transitional waters are identified. The article discusses the potential role that empirical algorithms could play alongside more advanced model-based algo...

A current review of empirical procedures of remote sensing in inland and near-coastal transitional waters

Atmospheric correction of metre-scale optical satellite data for inland and coastal water applications

http://www.imars.usf.edu/~carib/Public/Refs/Chen_Muller_Karger_Hu_RSE_2007a.pdf

Monitoring turbidity in Tampa Bay using MODIS/Aqua 250-m imagery

Over a 1-year period, field and satellite measurements of surface water turbidity were combined in order to study the dynamics of the turbidity maximum zone (TM) in a macrotidal estuary (the Gironde, France). Four fixed platforms equipped with turbidity sensors calibrated to give the suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentration provided continuous information in the upper estuary. Full resolution data recorded by the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensors onboard the Terra and Aqua satellite platforms provided information in the central and lower estuary twice a day (depending on cloud cover). Field data were used to validate a recently developed SPM quantification algorithm applied to the MODIS ‘surface reflectance’ product. The algorithm is based on a relationship between the SPM concentration and a reflectance ratio of MODIS bands 2 (near-infrared) and 1 (red). Based on 62 and 75 match-ups identified in 2005 with MODIS Terra and Aqua data, the relative uncertainty of the algorithm applied to these sensors was found to be 22 and 18%, respectively. Field measurements showed the tidal variations of turbidity in the upper estuary, while monthly-averaged MODIS satellite data complemented by field data allowed observing the monthly movements of the TM in the whole estuary. The trapping of fine sediments occurred in the upper estuary during the period of low river flow. This resulted in the formation of a highly concentrated TM during a 4-month period. With increasing river flow, the TM moved rapidly to the central estuary. A part of the TM detached, moved progressively in the lower estuary and was finally either massively exported to the ocean during peak floods or temporary trapped (settled) on intertidal mudflats. The massive export to the ocean was apparently the result of combined favorable environmental conditions: presence of fluid mud near the mouth, high river flow, high tides and limited wind speeds. The mean SPM concentration within surface waters of the whole estuary showed strong seasonal variations but remained almost unchanged on a 1-year-basis. These observations suggest that the masses of suspended sediments exported toward the ocean and supplied by the rivers were almost equivalent during the year investigated (2005). Results show the usefulness of information extracted from combined field and current ocean color satellite data in order to monitor the transport of suspended particles in coastal and estuarine waters.

Dynamics of the turbidity maximum zone in a macrotidal estuary (the Gironde, France): Observations from field and MODIS satellite data

Airborne hyperspectral remote sensing to assess spatial distribution of water quality characteristics in large rivers: the Mississippi River and its tributaries in Minnesota.

This study concerns the quantification of suspended particulate matter in the highly turbid estuarine waters of the Gironde, France, from high spatial resolution remotely sensed data, SPOT (Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre) High Resolution Visible (HRV), Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). The methodology is based on calibration relationships established between the remote sensing reflectance (R rs) signal and suspended particulate matter concentration (SPM), from in situ optical measurements. These relationships are valid in the long term as R rs ratios between near‐infrared (NIR) and visible wavebands are relatively independent of the particle grain‐size and mineralogy. Consequently, they can be applied to satellite images, even if no simultaneous in situ measurements are carried out concurrently with the satellite overpass. Selected satellite sensor data are corrected for atmospheric effects using radiative transfer code, then converted into surface water SPM concentrations according ...

Monitoring the maximum turbidity zone and detecting fine-scale turbidity features in the Gironde estuary using high spatial resolution satellite sensor (SPOT HRV, Landsat ETM + ) data

The contribution of surface reflection effects to above-water upwelling radiance measurements has been estimated from field optical data recorded in turbid coastal and estuarine waters. The water-leaving radiance signal was determined from underwater measurements and compared to the total upwelling radiance signal measured above the water surface with the sensor pointing towards the nadir, then adopting a recommended oblique viewing position. The observed differences are representative of surface reflection effects at the air/water interface (predominately sun and sky glint). These effects are analysed for different illumination conditions (cloud cover and solar zenith angle). Results are presented at four wavelengths representative of the visible and near-infrared spectral domains. The contribution of surface reflection effects to above-water upwelling radiance measurements is highly variable and always significant (typically 50% in the visible and higher at short and near-infrared wavelengths). It is more stable (consistent value), but higher under diffuse light conditions. The correction of surface reflection effects is problematic because the percentage of sky radiance reflected at the air/water interface (ρ) is unknown most of the time. An approximate correction (assuming a 0.02 ρ value) leads to large errors in the retrieved water-leaving signal. These errors are greatly minimized when considering a radiance ratio between two wavelengths.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1464-4258/6/7/006/pdf

Estimation of surface reflection effects on upwelling radiance field measurements in turbid waters

In the Tamar estuary (south‐west UK), the concentrations of coloured dissolved organic and suspended (total, organic and inorganic) matter were measured and related to in situ hyperspectral remote‐sensing reflectance (R rs) measurements. A simple method was used to determine the R rs signal from underwater optical measurements, in order to avoid any surface reflection effects. As previously observed in other estuaries, a large correlation was obtained between the R rs(850 nm)/R rs(550 nm) ratio and total suspended matter concentration. The same R rs ratio was also highly correlated to the inorganic suspended matter concentration. The corresponding relationships are linear. The R rs(400 nm)/R rs(600 nm) ratio correlates with the coloured dissolved organic matter concentration, according to a power law regression. These relationships, which appeared to be invariant during the summer period (June–September) and valid for the whole estuary, may be applied to airborne remote sensing data to map the tidal movem...

Use of reflectance band ratios to estimate suspended and dissolved matter concentrations in estuarine waters

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Monitoring the maximum turbidity zone and detecting fine-scale turbidity features in the Gironde estuary using high spatial resolution satellite sensor (SPOT HRV, Landsat ETM + ) data

Estimation of surface reflection effects on upwelling radiance field measurements in turbid waters

Use of reflectance band ratios to estimate suspended and dissolved matter concentrations in estuarine waters