Growing maturity of SLM has enabled the use of rapid manufacturing technology on hard-to-machine Ti alloys. In this review, selective laser melted titanium alloys are reviewed based on the ever-growing database recently. This study aims to systematically collect relevant and up-to-date information from an exhaustive literature on selective laser melted Ti alloys including the detailed elaboration of recent advances on fabrication, post-processing, microstructure characteristics, mechanical and biocompatibility performances, simulation as well as their correlation of Ti alloys for engineering applications manufactured by SLM. By summarizing the state-of-the-art progress of SLM Ti alloys, five future perspectives on challenges and prospects perspectives for SLM Ti alloys are proposed accordingly. This review advances the associated limitations and overcoming attempts, providing a better understanding and future perceptions on the interdependency between different aspects in this field. 

Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys via selective laser melting: Fabrication, microstructure, post-processing, performance and prospect

A356 alloys processed mostly with the low pressure die casting method are always known to contain casting pores and inhomogeneous microstructure. In this study, the effects of microstructure coarsening and casting pores on the tensile and high-cycle fatigue properties of A356-T6 alloy are comprehensively investigated. The deformation behavior and fracture mechanisms are systematically analyzed by combining tensile tests and crystal plasticity finite element method (CP-FEM) simulations with distinctively initial microstructure features (fine microstructure, coarse microstructure, and coarse microstructure with pores). The results show that microstructure coarsening is presented in the notably grown α-Al dendrites, which leads to the connection and thickening of eutectic regions accompanied by the aggregative distribution of eutectic Si particles. With the coarsening microstructure, microcrack is easier to initiate in those thick eutectic regions, due to the higher stress concentration caused by the aggregated eutectic silicon. Particularly, the dominant crack propagation path changes from the trans -dendrite for fine microstructure to along eutectic regions with coarse microstructure. In addition, it confirms that the casting pores have larger detrimental effects on the tensile and fatigue properties than the microstructure coarsening in the aspects of crack initiation. Stress concentration is prone to be induced at the local edge of pore at the initial loading stage, resulting in the micro plastic deformation and lower fatigue properties. With the rapid strain accumulation in later stage, the microcracks can initiate prematurely at the local edge of pore, and thus lead to obvious decrease in tensile elongation. Moreover, a modified fatigue model considering the effects of casting pores and the microstructure difference is proposed to describe the fatigue performance of A356-T6 alloy. • Microstructure coarsening significantly deteriorates the elongation of cast A356-T6 alloy. • Aggregation of eutectic silicon particles leads to the premature initiation of microcracks. • The casting pores have larger detrimental effects on the tensile and fatigue properties than the microstructure coarsening. • A new modified fatigue model coupling the effects of casting pores and the microstructure difference is proposed. 

Effects of microstructure coarsening and casting pores on the tensile and fatigue properties of cast A356-T6 aluminum alloy: A comparative investigation

Selective laser melting (SLM) allows for manufacturing intricate and accurate component designs that are challenging, expensive, or impossible to achieve using traditional methods. To achieve a high-quality final product with SLM, it is necessary to optimize the process parameters carefully. This optimization helps to minimize internal structural defects and control the microstructure. In this study, the optimum production parameters of Ti6Al4V alloy were determined using the Response Surface Method (RSM). The micro-CT analysis was utilized to calculate the relative densities of the samples fabricated using different production parameters. Furthermore, the influence of heat treatment, conducted below and above the β transformation temperature, on the mechanical properties was examined. The results were analyzed by considering the microstructure images obtained from Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The optimum production parameters for the SLM method were found to be 80W laser power, 1125 mm/s scanning speed, 25 μm layer thickness, and 45 μm hatch distance. Samples created with these optimized parameters achieved 99.919% relative density, 1050 MPa ultimate tensile stress, and 13.8% elongation, surpassing the minimum standards outlined in ASTM F3001-14. Additionally, the systematic parameter reduction approach used in the study led to savings in both powder consumption and time in SLM, a method that could be applied to various metallic materials. 

Effects of process parameters on selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V-ELI alloy and parameter optimization via response surface method

Additive manufacturing (AM) has obtained great attentions in the productions of customizable implants with complex shapes and good mechanical properties. AM fabricated implants of Ti alloy (Ti), stainless steel (SS), cobalt chromium (CoCr), iron (Fe) have been revolutionized in the productions of medical instruments, such as in artificial organs, including heart stents, drug delivery, scaffolds and orthopedic implants. However, high Young's modulus, superior mechanical characteristic, lack of surface integration, high corrosions, failed bone remodeling, and antibacterial performance are still incomparable to be used in anatomical structure. This review studied the issue of metallic implants designed by powder bed fusion of selective laser melting (SLM) techniques on the surface morphology, stress shielding effects, osseointegration, and antibacterial capabilities owing to implant failure. The rate of degradation and corrosion resistance of the metallic SLM implant, which would have an impact on cell proliferation and bone remodeling between the surrounding tissue, were discussed. The current review article also highlighted the various SLM parameters, like mechanical, chemical, and biological modifications, that might enhance the implant. Finally, applications, challenges, opportunities, and future developments of metallic implants using SLM techniques were addressed. 

Current trends in additive manufacturing of selective laser melting for biomedical implant applications

The particular roles of grain morphology and defects, controlled using laser-scan strategies, on the mechanical properties and the fatigue behavior of 316L stainless steel are investigated. Microstructural characterization and X-ray tomography analysis was performed to understand the genesis of polycrystalline microstructure and defects. Tensile and fatigue tests were performed to analyze the effect of defect population and microstructural properties on plasticity and damage mechanisms during monotonic and cyclic loading. The effect of the grain-size and shape and type of defect was carefully investigated to evaluate the mechanisms driving the mechanical behavior under quasi-static and fatigue loading. It is shown that the laser-scan strategy determines the anisotropy in the plane perpendicular to the building direction. Moreover, contrary to the existing literature, for 316L obtained by AM, the grain size and shape does not affect the mechanical properties, and LoF defects drive the fatigue life, independent of the defect/grain size ratio. 

Effect of laser‐scan strategy on microstructure and fatigue properties of 316L additively manufactured stainless steel

The aim of selective laser melting (SLM) technology is to obtain high quality workpieces through optimization of processing parameters. However, the defects and microstructures are simultaneously changed with the change of process parameters, so their effects are hard to discuss separately. To meet this challenge, 24 combinations of laser power and scanning speed were designed to fabricate the SLM manufactured Ti6Al4V alloy, and the volumetric energy density (VED) of them ranges from 30 J/mm3 to 100 J/mm3. It is found that with the increase of VED the prior β boundary tended to be straighter and wider, while the morphology of α lamella did no change distinctively. The porosity varies from nearly 0% to 4% in this process zone, which has significant effects on the tensile properties. For samples with high porosity (0.25%–4%), the influence of defects covered the influence of microstructure, leading to stochastic ultimate tensile strength and stably low elongation. For samples with low porosity (0.01%–0.25%) and extra-low porosity (

Effects of defects and microstructures on tensile properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloys fabricated in the optimal process zone

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Effects of defects and microstructures on tensile properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloys fabricated in the optimal process zone