Sampling and analysis or visual examination of soil to assess its status and use potential is widely practiced from plot to national scales. However, the choice of relevant soil attributes and interpretation of measurements are not straightforward, because of the complexity and site-specificity of soils, legacy effects of previous land use, and trade-offs between ecosystem services. Here we review soil quality and related concepts, in terms of definition, assessment approaches, and indicator selection and interpretation. We identify the most frequently used soil quality indicators under agricultural land use. We find that explicit evaluation of soil quality with respect to specific soil threats, soil functions and ecosystem services has rarely been implemented, and few approaches provide clear interpretation schemes of measured indicator values. This limits their adoption by land managers as well as policy. We also consider novel indicators that address currently neglected though important soil properties and processes, and we list the crucial steps in the development of a soil quality assessment procedure that is scientifically sound and supports management and policy decisions that account for the multi-functionality of soil. This requires the involvement of the pertinent actors, stakeholders and end-users to a much larger degree than practiced to date.

Soil quality – A critical review

Soil structure as an indicator of soil functions: A review

In this opinion article we examine the relationship between penetrometer resistance and soil depth in the field. Assuming that root growth is inhibited at penetrometer resistances > 2.5 MPa, we conclude that in most circumstances the increases in penetrometer resistance with depth are sufficiently great to confine most deep roots to elongating in existing structural pores. We suggest that deep rooting is more likely related to the interaction between root architecture and soil structure than it is to the ability of a root to deform strong soil. Although the ability of roots to deform strong soil is an important trait, we propose it is more closely related to root exploration of surface layers than deep rooting.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/pce.12684

Deep roots and soil structure

Increasing global demand for biofuel has accelerated land-use change (LUC) in Brazil, primarily through the planting of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) to replace degraded pastures. The intensive mechanization associated with this LUC has increased concerns regarding structural quality of Brazilian tropical soils. Through decades of research focusing on identifying sensitive indicators of soil degradation due to land use and management, the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) method has emerged as a simple, fast, reliable and accurate semi-quantitative approach for assessing soil structure changes. VESS integrates soil properties related to size, strength and porosity of aggregates, and root characteristics into a single score (Sq – structural quality) that ranges from 1 (good structural quality) to 5 (poor structural quality). Although the VESS method was developed for temperate soils, it has been used successfully as an indicator of soil and crop management practice effects on structural quality of tropical and subtropical soils. Our objectives were to evaluate soil structural quality changes associated with a LUC sequence (i.e., native vegetation to pasture to sugarcane) at three sites under Oxisols, Alfisols and Ultisols across central-southern Brazil using the VESS; and to correlate VESS scores with quantitative measurements of soil physical properties. Average VESS scores were 2.0, 2.7, and 3.1 for native vegetation, pasture, and sugarcane, respectively. Overall the VESS method was able to detect soil structural quality changes under LUC for sugarcane cultivation, indicating a decrease in soil quality from native vegetation through pasture to sugarcane. The VESS scores were significantly correlated with quantitative soil physical property measurements, suggesting VESS is a reliable indicator of soil structural quality in tropical soils. A VESS score Sq = 3.0 seems to be suitable as a guide for management decisions. We conclude that VESS scores provide an efficient method to identify impacts of sugarcane expansion on soil structural quality, and recommend that VESS assessment be incorporated into monitoring protocols for evaluating not only sugarcane expansion areas, but also overall soil quality/health in Brazil.

/pdf/assessing-soil-structural-quality-under-brazilian-sugarcane-38dfbht4d2.pdf

Assessing soil structural quality under Brazilian sugarcane expansion areas using Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS)

Traffic in agricultural fields with very high wheel loads imposes a risk of severe structural damage deep into the subsoil. However, there is a paucity of studies quantifying these effects. This study focuses on heavy traffic-induced changes in soil structure for a sandy loam soil in a temperate region. The treatments included no compaction (Control), compaction with ∼3 Mg (M3) and ∼8 Mg (M8) wheel loads with multiple (4–5) wheel passes, and compaction with a single-pass wheel load of ∼12 Mg (S12). The compaction treatments were replicated four consecutive years. Subsoil structural quality was evaluated visually by the SubVESS method, and soil pore characteristics were quantified for minimally disturbed soil cores sampled at 30, 50, 70 and 90 cm depth two years after the end of the experiment. Our results indicate that M8 significantly affected soil structural properties to >50 cm depth in terms of reduced subsoil structural quality, air-filled pore space, air permeability, gas diffusivity, pore volume and increased bulk density. Results also showed that the degree of compactness was ≥95% for M8 at 30 and 50 cm depth. Even though a pre-existing dense soil matrix was described in the studied soil, results confirmed that high wheel loads may cause significant subsoil compaction at >50 cm depth. Surprisingly, the S12 treatment did not show marked signs of decreasing structural quality at depth. Thus, our results indicate that primarily traffic applying multiple passes with high wheel loads compromises soil structure at depth. The S12 results further suggest the need to investigate the influence of factors other than wheel load and inflation pressure on the risk of subsoil compaction.

Wheel load, repeated wheeling, and traction effects on subsoil compaction in northern Europe

Subsoil degradation in agriculture is an increasing problem worldwide, particularly due to compaction caused by heavy machinery. Here, we describe a numeric assessment of subsoil structural quality in relation to soil as a crop growth medium and illustrate its utility with results from compaction experiments and from fields under minimum tillage. The scoring scheme resembles the topsoil visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) ( Guimaraes et al., 2011 ) with more emphasis on examination of the profile wall and of soil fragments. The focus is on identification and evaluation of the anthropic ‘transition layer’ immediately below the topsoil, usually >30 cm depth. Layers of contrasting hardness and colour were identified and the overall subsoil quality of each layer was scored from separate, sequential assessments of soil mottling, soil strength, visible soil porosity, the pattern and depth of root penetration and aggregate size and shape using a colour diagnostic flowchart. Use of the method enabled identification of extent and severity of compact transition layers in both well-drained and imperfectly drained soils. Porosity and strength assessments were particularly relevant. Reference soils under forest or long-term grassland helped to distinguish whether subsoil structural quality resulted from the natural soil composition or from degradation by land management. The derived scores may be used to judge the requirement for amelioration by subsoil loosening by mechanical inputs (e.g. deep tillage) and/or natural processes (e.g. shrinkage crack formation). The method was also used to identify differences in subsoil structural quality within fields associated with field traffic levels (Oxisol in Brazil) and with moisture status (Luvisol in France). The focus of SubVESS on structure rather than on texture may not permit recognition of effects such as low water holding capacity that influence agronomic potential. In such cases the more comprehensive evaluation of overall agronomic potential by methods such as the ‘profil cultural’ is required.

/pdf/the-numeric-visual-evaluation-of-subsoil-structure-subvess-40nhy5xwd2.pdf

The numeric visual evaluation of subsoil structure (SubVESS) under agricultural production

Reduction of yield gaps and improvement of ecological function through local-to-global applications of visual soil assessment.

Corrigendum to “The numeric visual evaluation of subsoil structure (SubVESS) under agricultural production” [Soil & Tillage Research 148, 85–96]

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The numeric visual evaluation of subsoil structure (SubVESS) under agricultural production

Reduction of yield gaps and improvement of ecological function through local-to-global applications of visual soil assessment.

Corrigendum to “The numeric visual evaluation of subsoil structure (SubVESS) under agricultural production” [Soil & Tillage Research 148, 85–96]