Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management

Alongside the concern for environmental sustainability, the concept of Circular Economy, a term for an economic system designed to regenerate itself, has gained momentum. Circularity finds full expression in Local Energy Communities (LEC), a newly emerging setup wherein the local energy needs of a community are met independently, through the choice of shared solutions for energy production from renewable sources. Erstwhile the use of stationary energy storage systems for self-consumption optimization, load management, peak shaving, backup power and ancillary services, would foster the value of these Local Energy Communities. In this paper, we design a techno-economic analysis to assess the impact of the usage of Second-life Batteries for increasing the energy self-independence of those communities. A cost-minimization approach with technical and economic constraints is used for the analysis and is applied to a use case of Italy. This paper assesses the benefits that a Local Energy Community can entail while considering self-consumption maximization of PV generation, load shifting and grid balancing needs, while addressing the problem of high storage costs through the exploitation of second-life electric vehicles (EV) batteries, adding an extra layer for circularity. Scenarios related to maximizing the self-consumption of photovoltaic generation and demand side management are designed considering four different LEC technology configurations. The results confirm LEC viability, showing lower energy bills for each scenario and greater benefits coupling a solar generation system with a storage solution. 

Second-life EV batteries for stationary storage applications in Local Energy Communities

Energy storage batteries are part of renewable energy generation applications to ensure their operation. At present, the primary energy storage batteries are lead-acid batteries (LABs), which have the problems of low energy density and short cycle lives. With the development of new energy vehicles, an increasing number of retired lithium-ion batteries need disposal urgently. Retired lithium-ion batteries still retain about 80 % of their capacity, which can be used in energy storage systems to avoid wasting energy. In this paper, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) batteries, which are commonly used in electric vehicles, and lead-acid batteries, which are commonly used in energy storage systems were taken as the research objects. The environmental impacts of their full life cycles were compared, and the sensitivity analysis of the key parts in the battery production phase and the data with major contributions were carried out through the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. The results show that the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries in the production phase are higher than lead-acid batteries. However, they have lower environmental impacts in the use phase because of their higher charging and discharging efficiency. In general, the environmental performance of LFP batteries is better, especially in carbon emission, soil acidification, and abiotic resource depletion. Lead-acid batteries have more advantages in ozone loss, ecotoxicity, and eutrophication. The production phase contributes the most to various environmental impacts, which can be alleviated through recycling. The recycling of NCM batteries has better environmental benefits. The physical recycling technology of LFP batteries is better than hydrometallurgy in terms of ecotoxicity and eutrophication, but it has negative effects on some environmental indicators. Secondary utilization can avoid the high energy consumption and high emission process of battery production and achieve the purpose of environmental protection. According to the results, discarded lithium-ion batteries can be reused to maximize the value of batteries, which will also promote the development of clean electricity to a certain extent and further reduce the burden on the environment. 

Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles' lithium-ion batteries reused for energy storage

Incentivising multi-stakeholders’ proactivity and market vitality for spatiotemporal microgrids in Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong Bay Area

At the DOE Battery Manufacturing R&D Facility, researchers are partnering with industry to increase energy density, reduce costs and hazardous materials, and improve the manufacturing process for batteries used in electric vehicles and other applications.

Energy Storage Technologies

Energy exchange technologies will play an important role in the transition towards localised, sustainable energy supply. Hybrid energy storage systems, using different energy storage technologies, are currently under investigation to improve their technical performance and environmental sustainability. However, there is currently no exploration of the environmental benefits and economic feasibility of hybrid energy storage systems combining 1st and 2nd life batteries and battery electric vehicles. To determine the environmental and economic impacts of this type of hybrid energy storage system, this research employs a three-tier circularity assessment incorporating Life Cycle Assessment, Techno Economic Analysis and an Eco-Efficiency Index, from cradle-to-grave, of 43 techno-hybridisations of four 1st and 2nd life battery technologies; Lithium Titanate, Lead-acid, Lithium Iron Phosphate and Sodium-ion, with battery electric vehicles. The results of the life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis show that a hybrid energy storage system configuration containing a low proportion of 1st life Lithium Titanate and battery electric vehicle battery technologies with a high proportion of 2nd life Lithium Titanate batteries minimises the environmental and economic impacts and provides a high eco-efficiency. The results of the eco-efficiency index show that a hybrid energy storage system configuration containing equal proportions of 1st and 2nd life Lithium Titanate and BEV battery technologies is the most eco-efficient. This research highlights the environmental and economic benefits of the use of Lithium Titanate battery technologies within novel hybrid energy storage systems.

Higher 2nd life Lithium Titanate battery content in hybrid energy storage systems lowers environmental-economic impact and balances eco-efficiency

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Higher 2nd life Lithium Titanate battery content in hybrid energy storage systems lowers environmental-economic impact and balances eco-efficiency