Learn the basic properties and designs of modern VLSI devices, as well as the factors affecting performance, with this thoroughly updated second edition. The first edition has been widely adopted as a standard textbook in microelectronics in many major US universities and worldwide. The internationally-renowned authors highlight the intricate interdependencies and subtle tradeoffs between various practically important device parameters, and also provide an in-depth discussion of device scaling and scaling limits of CMOS and bipolar devices. Equations and parameters provided are checked continuously against the reality of silicon data, making the book equally useful in practical transistor design and in the classroom. Every chapter has been updated to include the latest developments, such as MOSFET scale length theory, high-field transport model, and SiGe-base bipolar devices.

/pdf/fundamentals-of-modern-vlsi-devices-471xd7l9pf.pdf

Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices

We report extensive laser-induced damage threshold measurements on dielectric materials at wavelengths of 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations $\ensuremath{\tau}$ ranging from 140 fs to 1 ns. Qualitative differences in the morphology of damage and a departure from the diffusion-dominated ${\ensuremath{\tau}}^{\frac{1}{2}}$ scaling of the damage fluence indicate that damage occurs from ablation for $\ensuremath{\tau}l~10$ ps and from conventional melting, boiling, and fracture for $\ensuremath{\tau}g50$ ps. We find a decreasing threshold fluence associated with a gradual transition from the long-pulse, thermally dominated regime to an ablative regime dominated by collisional and multiphoton ionization, and plasma formation. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in quantitative agreement with the experimental results.

/pdf/nanosecond-to-femtosecond-laser-induced-breakdown-in-4w8ofpthbm.pdf

Nanosecond-to-femtosecond laser-induced breakdown in dielectrics

We review recent advances in laser cell surgery, and investigate the working mechanisms of femtosecond laser nanoprocessing in biomaterials with oscillator pulses of 80-MHz repetition rate and with amplified pulses of 1-kHz repetition rate. Plasma formation in water, the evolution of the temperature distribution, thermoelastic stress generation, and stress-induced bubble formation are numerically simulated for NA=1.3, and the outcome is compared to experimental results. Mechanisms and the spatial resolution of femtosecond laser surgery are then compared to the features of continuous-wave (cw) microbeams. We find that free electrons are produced in a fairly large irradiance range below the optical breakdown threshold, with a deterministic relationship between free-electron density and irradiance. This provides a large ‘tuning range’ for the creation of spatially extremely confined chemical, thermal, and mechanical effects via free-electron generation. Dissection at 80-MHz repetition rate is performed in the low-density plasma regime at pulse energies well below the optical breakdown threshold and only slightly higher than used for nonlinear imaging. It is mediated by free-electron-induced chemical decomposition (bond breaking) in conjunction with multiphoton-induced chemistry, and hardly related to heating or thermoelastic stresses. When the energy is raised, accumulative heating occurs and long-lasting bubbles are produced by tissue dissociation into volatile fragments, which is usually unwanted. By contrast, dissection at 1-kHz repetition rate is performed using more than 10-fold larger pulse energies and relies on thermoelastically induced formation of minute transient cavities with lifetimes <100 ns. Both modes of femtosecond laser nanoprocessing can achieve a 2–3 fold better precision than cell surgery using cw irradiation, and enable manipulation at arbitrary locations.

Mechanisms of femtosecond laser nanosurgery of cells and tissues

The outstanding properties of SiO2, which include high resistivity, excellent dielectric strength, a large band gap, a high melting point, and a native, low defect density interface with Si, are in large part responsible for enabling the microelectronics revolution. The Si/SiO2 interface, which forms the heart of the modern metal–oxide–semiconductor field effect transistor, the building block of the integrated circuit, is arguably the worlds most economically and technologically important materials interface. This article summarizes recent progress and current scientific understanding of ultrathin (<4 nm) SiO2 and Si–O–N (silicon oxynitride) gate dielectrics on Si based devices. We will emphasize an understanding of the limits of these gate dielectrics, i.e., how their continuously shrinking thickness, dictated by integrated circuit device scaling, results in physical and electrical property changes that impose limits on their usefulness. We observe, in conclusion, that although Si microelectronic devices...

Ultrathin (<4 nm) SiO2 and Si-O-N gate dielectric layers for silicon microelectronics: Understanding the processing, structure, and physical and electrical limits

Degradation of silicon dioxide films is shown to occur primarily near interfaces with contacting metals or semiconductors. This deterioration is shown to be accountable through two mechanisms triggered by electron heating in the oxide conduction band. These mechanisms are trap creation and band‐gap ionization by carriers with energies exceeding 2 and 9 eV with respect to the bottom of the oxide conduction band, respectively. The relationship of band‐gap ionization to defect production and subsequent degradation is emphasized. The dependence of the generated sites on electric field, oxide thickness, temperature, voltage polarity, and processing for each mechanism is discussed. A procedure for separating and studying these two generation modes is also discussed. A unified model from simple kinetic relationships is developed and compared to the experimental results. Destructive breakdown of the oxide is shown to be correlated with ‘‘effective’’ interface softening due to the total defect generation caused by both mechanisms.

Impact ionization, trap creation, degradation, and breakdown in silicon dioxide films on silicon

We present model calculations for high-field electron transport in silicon dioxide based on recently measured energy-dependent electron-phonon scattering rates and impact ionization rates. We find a hot-electron runaway phenomenon in ${\mathrm{SiO}}_{2}$, ``acoustic-phonon runaway.'' This phenomenon occurs at electric fields exceeding 7 MV/cm, when acoustic-phonon scattering can no longer stabilize the hot electrons. A fraction of the electrons are accelerated in the electric field to energies high enough to generate electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. Simulated hole currents due to high-field impact ionization in ${\mathrm{SiO}}_{2}$ gate oxides with thicknesses greater than 200 A\r{} agree well with measured substrate hole currents in n-channel field-effect transistors. This suggests that these currents are due to holes generated by hot-electron impacts in the gate oxide.

Acoustic-phonon runaway and impact ionization by hot electrons in silicon dioxide.

Positive charge formation and its possible relationship to impact ionization in silicon dioxide have been controversial issues for many years. In this study, band‐gap ionization due to the development of a high‐energy tail in the hot‐electron energy distribution is shown to occur in films thicker than 20.0 nm at fields higher than 7 MV/cm. This process is demonstrated to ‘‘directly’’ account for hole currents in the substrate circuit of n‐channel field‐effect transistors and for the observation of positively trapped charges accumulating at the substrate‐silicon/silicon‐dioxide interface at low injected‐carrier fluences (less than 0.001 C/cm2) before the onset of trap creation.

Impact ionization and positive charge formation in silicon dioxide films on silicon

Destructive breakdown in silicon dioxide is shown to be strongly correlated to the oxide degradation caused by hot‐electron‐induced defect production and charge trapping near the interfaces of the films. Two well‐defined transitions in the charge‐to‐breakdown data as a function of field and oxide thickness are shown to coincide with the onset of trap creation and impact ionization by electrons with energies exceeding 2 and 9 eV, respectively.

Degradation and breakdown of silicon dioxide films on silicon

Destructive breakdown in silicon dioxide is shown to be strongly correlated to the oxide degradation caused by hot-electron-induced defect production and charge trapping ner the interfaces of the films. Two well defined transitions in the chargc-to-breakdown data as a function of field and oxide thickness are shown to coincide with the onset of mechanisms due to trap creation and impact ionization by electrons with energies exceeding 2 and 9 eV (the SiO2 bandgap energy), respectively. The temperature dependence of charge-to-breakdown is also shown to be consistent with that of these two defect-producing mechanisms.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S1946427400431726

Impact Ionization, Degradation, and Breakdown in SiO2

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