Our understanding of allergic contact dermatitis mechanisms has progressed over the past decade. Innate immune cells that are involved in the pathogenesis of allergic contact dermatitis include Langerhans cells, dermal dendritic cells, macrophages, mast cells, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. ILCs can be subcategorized as group 1 (natural killer cells; ILC1) in association with Th1, group 2 (ILC2) in association with Th2, and group 3 (lymphoid tissue-inducer cells; ILC3) in association with Th17. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) including toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) in innate immune cells recognize damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and cascade the signal to produce several cytokines and chemokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-α, IFN-γ, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, IL-18, and IL-23. Here we discuss the recent findings showing the roles of the innate immune system in allergic contact dermatitis during the sensitization and elicitation phases.

Role of Innate Immunity in Allergic Contact Dermatitis: An Update

Vocal plasticity can occur in response to environmental and biological factors, including conspecifics' vocalizations and noise. Pinnipeds are one of the few mammalian groups capable of vocal learn...

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2020.0456

Vocal plasticity in harbour seal pups.

The development of rhythmicity is foundational to communicative and social behaviours in humans and many other species, and mechanisms of synchrony could be conserved across species. The goal of th...

/pdf/linking-the-genomic-signatures-of-human-beat-synchronization-5gu2np0ti8.pdf

Linking the genomic signatures of human beat synchronization and learned song in birds.

Vocal plasticity can occur in response to environmental and biological factors, including conspecifics9 vocalisations and noise Pinnipeds are one of the few mammalian groups capable of vocal learning, and are therefore relevant to understanding the evolution of vocal plasticity in humans and other animals Here, we investigate the vocal plasticity of harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), a species with vocal learning abilities attested in adulthood but not puppyhood To zoom into early mammalian vocal development, we tested 1-3 weeks old seal pups We tailored noise playbacks to this species and age to induce seal pups to shift their fundamental frequency (F0), rather than adapt call amplitude or temporal characteristics We exposed individual pups to bandpass-filtered noise, which purposely spanned - and masked - their typical range of F0s, and simultaneously recorded pups9 spontaneous calls Seals were able to modify their vocalisations quite unlike most mammals: They lowered their F0 in response to increased noise This modulation was punctual and adapted to the particular noise condition In addition, higher noise induced less dispersion around the mean F0, suggesting that pups may have been actively focusing their phonatory efforts to target lower frequencies Noise masking did not seem to affect call amplitude However, one seal showed two characteristics of the Lombard effect known for human speech in noise: significant increase in call amplitude and flattening of spectral tilt Our relatively low noise levels may have favoured F0 shifts while inhibiting amplitude adjustments This lowering of F0 is quite unusual, as other animals commonly display no F0 shift independently of noise amplitude Our data represents a relatively rare case in mammalian neonates, and may have implications for the evolution of vocal plasticity across species, including humans

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2021/02/10/2021.02.10.430617.full.pdf

Vocal plasticity in harbour seal pups

Abstract Background Which mammals show vocal learning abilities, e.g., can learn new sounds, or learn to use sounds in new contexts? Vocal usage and comprehension learning are submodules of vocal learning. Specifically, vocal usage learning is the ability to learn to use a vocalization in a new context; vocal comprehension learning is the ability to comprehend a vocalization in a new context. Among mammals, harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina ) are good candidates to investigate vocal learning. Here, we test whether harbor seals are capable of vocal usage and comprehension learning. Results We trained two harbor seals to (i) switch contexts from a visual to an auditory cue. In particular, the seals first produced two vocalization types in response to two hand signs; they then transitioned to producing these two vocalization types upon the presentation of two distinct sets of playbacks of their own vocalizations. We then (ii) exposed the seals to a combination of trained and novel vocalization stimuli. In a final experiment, (iii) we broadcasted only novel vocalizations of the two vocalization types to test whether seals could generalize from the trained set of stimuli to only novel items of a given vocal category. Both seals learned all tasks and took ≤ 16 sessions to succeed across all experiments. In particular, the seals showed contextual learning through switching the context from former visual to novel auditory cues, vocal matching and generalization. Finally, by responding to the played-back vocalizations with distinct vocalizations, the animals showed vocal comprehension learning. Conclusions It has been suggested that harbor seals are vocal learners; however, to date, these observations had not been confirmed in controlled experiments. Here, through three experiments, we could show that harbor seals are capable of both vocal usage and comprehension learning. 

Vocal usage learning and vocal comprehension learning in harbor seals

Comparative animal studies of complex behavioural traits, and their neurobiological underpinnings, can increase our understanding of their evolution, including in humans. Vocal learning, a potentia...

/pdf/neuroanatomy-of-the-grey-seal-brain-bringing-pinnipeds-into-33edqzy0ln.pdf

Neuroanatomy of the grey seal brain: bringing pinnipeds into the neurobiological study of vocal learning

Comparative studies of vocal learning and vocal non-learning animals can increase our understanding of the neurobiology and evolution of vocal learning and human speech. Mammalian vocal learning is understudied: most research has either focused on vocal learning in songbirds or its absence in non-human primates. Here we focus on a highly promising model species for the neurobiology of vocal learning: grey seals. We provide a neuroanatomical atlas (based on dissected brain slices and magnetic resonance images), a labelled MRI template, a 3D model with volumetric measurements of brain regions, and histological cortical stainings. Four main features of the grey seal brain stand out. (1) It is relatively big and highly convoluted. (2) It hosts a relatively large temporal lobe and cerebellum, structures which could support developed timing abilities and acoustic processing. (3) The cortex is similar to humans in thickness and shows the expected six-layered mammalian structure. (4) Expression of FoxP2 - a gene involved in vocal learning and spoken language - is present in deeper layers of the cortex. Our results could facilitate future studies targeting the neural and genetic underpinnings of mammalian vocal learning, thus bridging the research gap from songbirds to humans and non-human primates.

/pdf/neuroanatomy-of-the-grey-seal-brain-bringing-pinnipeds-into-4n0ohnjuw9.pdf

Culture System Allowing the Simultaneous Differentiation of Human Monocytes into Dendritic Cells and Macrophages Using M-CSF, IL-4, and TNF-α.

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Neuroanatomy of the grey seal brain: bringing pinnipeds into the neurobiological study of vocal learning

Neuroanatomy of the grey seal brain: bringing pinnipeds into the neurobiological study of vocal learning

Culture System Allowing the Simultaneous Differentiation of Human Monocytes into Dendritic Cells and Macrophages Using M-CSF, IL-4, and TNF-α.