There is a pressing need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and release bioactive lipids within the food, medical, and pharmaceutical industries. The fact that these delivery systems must be edible puts constraints on the type of ingredients and processing operations that can be used to create them. Emulsion technology is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for encapsulating bioactive lipids. This review provides a brief overview of the major bioactive lipids that need to be delivered within the food industry (for example, ω-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and phytosterols), highlighting the main challenges to their current incorporation into foods. We then provide an overview of a number of emulsion-based technologies that could be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems could be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (for example, lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using simple processing operations (for example, mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). For each type of delivery system, we describe its structure, preparation, advantages, limitations, and potential applications. This knowledge can be used to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00507.x

Emulsion-based delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive components.

There have been major advances in the design and fabrication of structured delivery systems for the encapsulation of nutraceutical and functional food components. A wide variety of delivery systems is now available, each with its own advantages and disadvantages for particular applications. This review begins by discussing some of the major nutraceutical and functional food components that need to be delivered and highlights the main limitations to their current utilization within the food industry. It then discusses the principles underpinning the rational design of structured delivery systems: the structural characteristics of the building blocks; the nature of the forces holding these building blocks together; and, the different ways of assembling these building blocks into structured delivery systems. Finally, we review the major types of structured delivery systems that are currently available to food scientists: lipid-based (simple, multiple, multilayer, and solid lipid particle emulsions); surfactant-based (simple micelles, mixed micelles, vesicles, and microemulsions) and biopolymer-based (soluble complexes, coacervates, hydrogel droplets, and particles). For each type of delivery system we describe its preparation, properties, advantages, and limitations.

Structural design principles for delivery of bioactive components in nutraceuticals and functional foods.

Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food components.

Particle size and physical state of the lipid phase are major factors influencing the permanence of lipid dispersions. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) are a delivery system in which partial-crystallized lipid particles with mean radii ≤ 100 nm are dispersed in an aqueous phase containing emulsifier(s), as a potential delivery system may have some advantages in certain circumstances when compared with other colloidal carriers. NLC are a useful nutraceutical delivery system with high drug loading, encapsulation efficiency and stability. They may increase, bioavailability and stability of bioactive compounds, and shelf-life, consumer acceptability, functionality, nutritional value and safety of food systems, and provide controlled release of encapsulated materials. In this review, beneficial aspects of NLC are presented and valuable information about ingredients, production methods, structure and characteristics of them provided. Moreover, potential applications and disadvantages of NLC as emerging delivery system in food science are introduced. Industrial relevance With the increasing public perception of a strong correlation between food and disease prevention, producers are trying to enrich staple foods and beverages with nutraceuticals and produce functional foods. Nonetheless, fortification of aqueous-based food with many of nutraceuticals is greatly limited owing to their poor water-solubility, chemical instability, and low bioavailability. NLC are a novel nanocarrier that may dispel these limitations, combine the advantages of other lipid nanocarriers and avoid some of their disadvantages. They may be suitable for application within foods and transparent/opaque beverages.

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC): A potential delivery system for bioactive food molecules

The food industry has used emulsion science and technology for many years to create a diverse range of food products, such as milk, cream, soft drinks, nutritional beverages, dressings, mayonnaise, sauces, dips, deserts, ice cream, margarine, and butter. The majority of these food products are conventional oil-in-water (O/W) or water-in-oil (W/O) type emulsions. Recently, there has been increasing interest within the food industry in either improving or extending the functional performance of foods using novel structured emulsions. This article reviews recent developments in the creation of structured emulsions that could be used by the food and other industries, including nanoemulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. These structured emulsions can be produced from food-grade [generally recognized as safe (GRAS)] ingredients (e.g., lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals), using simple processing operations (e.g., mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). The structure, production, performance, and potential applications of each type of structured emulsion system are discussed.

Emulsion Design to Improve the Delivery of Functional Lipophilic Components

Two different types of colloidal lipid particles are presented and compared as innovative carrier systems. Size distribution and storage stability of formulations produced by hot high pressure homogenisation in lab and medium scale production were investigated by laser diffractometry (LD) and photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS). Nanoparticles were characterised by their melting and recrystallisation behaviour recorded by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Electron microscope investigations were also carried out showing the particulate character of these carriers. Reasons for observed differences in loading capacity are discussed and possibilities for dermal application are described.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) -- structural investigations on two different carrier systems.

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Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) -- structural investigations on two different carrier systems.