The most common method of clinical measurement of arterial blood pressure is by means of the cuff sphygmomanometer. This instrument has provided fundamental quantitative information on arterial pressure in individual subjects and in populations and facilitated estimation of cardiovascular risk related to levels of blood pressure obtained from the brachial cuff. Although the measurement is taken in a peripheral limb, the values are generally assumed to reflect the pressure throughout the arterial tree in large conduit arteries. Since the arterial pressure pulse becomes modified as it travels away from the heart towards the periphery, this is generally true for mean and diastolic pressure, but not for systolic pressure, and so pulse pressure. The relationship between central and peripheral pulse pressure depends on propagation characteristics of arteries. Hence, while the sphygmomanometer gives values of two single points on the pressure wave (systolic and diastolic pressure), there is additional information that can be obtained from the time-varying pulse waveform that enables an improved quantification of the systolic load on the heart and other central organs. This topical review will assess techniques of pressure measurement that relate to the use of the cuff sphygmomanometer and to the non-invasive registration and analysis of the peripheral and central arterial pressure waveform. Improved assessment of cardiovascular function in relation to treatment and management of high blood pressure will result from future developments in the indirect measurement of arterial blood pressure that involve the conventional cuff sphygmomanometer with the addition of information derived from the peripheral arterial pulse.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0967-3334/31/1/R01/pdf

Arterial blood pressure measurement and pulse wave analysis?their role in enhancing cardiovascular assessment

Chronic inflammatory diseases are associated with increases in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and subclinical atherosclerosis as well as early-stage endothelial dysfunction screening using the FMD method (Flow Mediated Dilation). This phenomenon, referred to as accelerated pathological remodeling of arterial wall, could be attributed to traditional risk factors associated with atherosclerosis. Several new non-invasive techniques have been used to study arterial wall's structural and functional alterations. These techniques (based of Radio Frequency, RF) allow for an assessment of artery age through calculations of intima-media thickness (RF- QIMT), pulse wave rate (RF- QAS) and endothelial dysfunction degree (FMD). The inflammatory and autoimmune diseases should now be considered as new cardiovascular risk factors, result of the major consequences of oxidative stress and RAS (Renin Angiotensin System) imbalance associated with the deleterious effect of known risk factors that lead to the alteration of the arterial wall. Inflammation plays a key role in all stages of the formation of vascular lesions maintained and exacerbated by the risk factors. The consequence of chronic inflammation is endothelial dysfunction that sets in and we can define it as an integrated marker of the damage to arterial walls by classic risk factors. The atherosclerosis, which develops among these patients, is the main cause for cardiovascular morbi-mortality and uncontrolled chronic biological inflammation, which quickly favors endothelial dysfunction. These inflammatory and autoimmune diseases should now be considered as new cardiovascular risk factors.

Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Endothelial Dysfunction

Arterial stiffness has been identified as an independent predictor of prognostic outcomes for patients with cardiovascular disease. Although measurement of pulse wave velocity has been a widely accepted noninvasive approach to the assessment of arterial stiffness, its accuracy is hampered by changes in blood pressure. Taking the exponential relation between intravascular pressure and arterial diameter into consideration, a stiffness parameter can be obtained by plotting the natural logarithm of systolic–diastolic pressure ratio against the arterial wall extensibility. Cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI), which is calculated based on the stiffness parameter thus obtained, is theoretically independent of changes in blood pressure. With this distinct advantage, CAVI has been widely applied clinically to assess arterial stiffness in subjects with known cardiovascular diseases including those with diagnosed atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and stroke as well as those at risk, including those with hypertension, diabetes, the elderly, and the obese. Because of its enhanced sensitivity, not only has the index been used to discern subtle changes in the disease process, it has also been utilized in studying normal individuals to assess their potential risks of developing cardiovascular diseases. The primary aims of assessing arterial stiffness using CAVI are not only to aid in early detection of arteriosclerosis to allow timely treatment and change in lifestyle, but also to quantitatively evaluate the progression of disease and the effectiveness of treatment. Despite its merit of being unaffected by blood pressure, discretion in data interpretation is suggested because an elevated CAVI represents not just vascular stiffness caused by pathological changes in the arterial wall, but can also be attributed to an increased vascular tone brought about by smooth muscle contraction. Moreover, certain patient populations, such as those with an ankle-brachial index < 0.9, may give falsely low CAVI and are suggested to be excluded from study.

/pdf/cardio-ankle-vascular-index-cavi-as-an-indicator-of-arterial-ttynlwc95j.pdf

Cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI) as an indicator of arterial stiffness.

Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor factor for cardiovascular risk. Different methods for determining pulse wave velocity (PWV) are used, among which the most common are mechanical methods such as SphygmoCor or Complior, which require specific devices and are limited by technical difficulty in obtaining measurements. Doppler guided by 2D ultrasound is a good alternative to these methods. We studied 40 patients (29 male, aged 21 to 82 years) comparing the Complior method with Doppler. Agreement of both devices was high (R = 0.91, 0.84-0.95, 95% CI). The reproducibility analysis revealed no intra-nor interobserver differences. Based on these results, we conclude that Doppler ultrasound is a reliable and reproducible alternative to other established methods for the measurement of aortic PWV.

/pdf/doppler-ultrasound-in-the-measurement-of-pulse-wave-velocity-582qx5miaa.pdf

Doppler ultrasound in the measurement of pulse wave velocity: agreement with the Complior method

Endothelial dysfunction and vascular stiffness in systemic lupus erythematosus: Are they early markers of subclinical atherosclerosis?

Background
Many noninvasive arterial assessment techniques have been developed, measuring different parameters of arterial stiffness and endothelial function. However, there is little data available comparing different devices within the same subject. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the repeatability and interrelationships between 3 different techniques to measure arterial stiffness and to compare this with forearm-mediated dilation.

/pdf/noninvasive-measurements-of-arterial-stiffness-repeatability-17avaszope.pdf

Noninvasive measurements of arterial stiffness: repeatability and interrelationships with endothelial function and arterial morphology measures.

Comparison of Non-Invasive Modalities of Vascular Function: 1380

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Noninvasive measurements of arterial stiffness: repeatability and interrelationships with endothelial function and arterial morphology measures.

Comparison of Non-Invasive Modalities of Vascular Function: 1380