Five studies document the validity of a new 8-item scale designed to measure positivity, defined as the tendency to view life and experiences with a positive outlook. In the first study (N 372), the psychometric properties of Positivity Scale (P Scale) were examined in accordance with classical test theory using a large number of college participants. In Study 2, the unidimensionality of the P Scale was corroborated with confirmatory factor analysis in 2 independent samples (N1 322; N2 457). In Study 3, P Scale invariance across sexes and its relations with self-esteem, life satisfaction, optimism, positive negative affect, depression, and the Big Five provided further evidence of the internal and construct validity of the new measure in a large community sample (N 3,589). In Study 4, test–retest reliability of the P Scale was found in a sample of college students (N 262) who were readministered the scale after 5 weeks. In Study 5, measurement invariance and construct validity of P Scale were further supported across samples in different countries and cultures, including Italy (N 689), the United States (N 1,187), Japan (N 281), and Spain (N 302). Psychometric findings across diverse cultural context attest to the robustness of the P Scale and to positivity as a basic disposition.

The positivity scale.

Do self-enhancement/self-protection and self-esteem reflect fundamental human motivations or are they culturally bound occurrences? The debate on universalism versus cultural relativism of self-motives and self-esteem shows no sign of abatement We advance the debate by proposing the extended self-enhancing tactician model The model aspires to account for two seemingly contradictory phenomena: cross-cultural invariance (equivalence of self-motive strength and self-esteem desire across cultures) and cross-cultural variability (differential manifestations of self-motives and self-esteem across cultures) The model's four foundational tenets address cross-cultural invariance: (1) The individual self is panculturally valued, and it is so over the relational or collective self; (2) The self-enhancement/self-protection motives are equally potent in East and West; (3) The structure of self-enhancement and self-protection strivings is similar across the cultural divide; and (4) the desire for self-esteem is pancultural The SCENT-R model's four key postulates address cross-cultural variability First, Easterners assign relative importance to, and report higher, liking-based self-esteem, as well as consider collectivistic attributes important and self-enhance on them, whereas Westerners assign relative importance to, and report higher, competence-based self-esteem, as well as consider individualistic attributes important and self-enhance on them Second, when constraints on candid self-enhancement are lifted, Easterners behave like Westerners: they report higher modesty and lower self-esteem than Westerners, but, controlling for modesty, differences in self-esteem disappear; they self-enhance in competitive, but self-efface in cooperative, settings; they profit from other-mediated than own-initiated self-enhancement Third, implicit self-esteem is similarly high across cultures Fourth, self-esteem and self-enhancement/self-protection confer parallel benefits in East–West, depending in part on domain relevance Self-enhancement and self-protection, as well as self-esteem, reflect fundamental human motivation

/pdf/on-the-panculturality-of-self-enhancement-and-self-4vsj0bgjm7.pdf

On the panculturality of self-enhancement and self-protection motivation: the case for the universality of self-esteem

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a relatively new construct in differential psy- chology. Proponents of EI have made strong claims for its importance in basic and applied psychology. This article considers whether the promise of EI has been fulfilled. We examine various fundamental challenges to establishing EI as a major individual differences factor, including cross-cultural issues. We then examine strategies for assessing EI as a personal quality distinct from general intelligence and personality, and evaluate leading tests and scales for EI. Various sources of validity evidence demonstrate the value of research on EI, but we also identify various weaknesses of existing instruments. It appears that there is no strong, over-arching general factor of EI that shapes human emotional functioning across a range of diverse contexts. Instead, we advocate a "multipolar" conception of EI that discriminates tempera- ment, information-processing, emotion-regulation and acquired skills. Focusing research on more narrowly defined but conceptually coherent research domains may be a more productive strategy than seeking to define an all-embracing general EI.

/pdf/emotional-intelligence-a-promise-unfulfilled-4gfzk2n4vr.pdf

Emotional intelligence: A promise unfulfilled?

Face plays an important role in social life. However, little is known about the psychological consequences of an individual's face experiences. This study examined the effects of face experiences on emotions and self-esteem in a diary study conducted in Japanese culture, in which face functions as a mechanism to maintain interpersonal harmony. Participants reported the occurrence of face-related events, maintenance/loss of face, emotions and self-esteem twice a week for 10 weeks. We predicted and found that (1) the occurrence of one's own face events increased participants' depressiveness, (2) the maintenance of one's own face heightened joyfulness and decreased depressiveness, (3) the maintenance of one's own face heightened participants' self-esteem, and (4) the maintenance of other people's face increased joyfulness and calmness but did not affect self-esteem. These findings provided empirical supports for fundamental assumptions that have never been subjected to empirical scrutiny in face research. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effects of face experience on emotions and self-esteem in Japanese culture

Mainstream psychology has observed that people from Western cultures value being unique and being positively distinguished from others. On the other hand, the Japanese have a tendency to be modest rather than unique, which can be in interpreted as a reflection of placing a high value on collectivism. Rather than seeking personal happiness, Japanese value maintaining harmonious relationships with important others, which result in emphasizing ordinariness and similarity with others. We theorized that Japanese tend to perceive themselves as being ordinary, so much so that their self-predictions about future life events are biased toward ordinariness (super-ordinary bias). This tendency is not restricted to the estimation of future life events. The present chapter points out that Japanese (and perhaps Asians in general) have another motivation for being ordinary and discusses its implications.

Super-Ordinary Bias Among Japanese: Is It Unique to Japanese Culture?

Self-esteem refers to an individual's positive and possibly negative attitude toward the self, which consists mostly of positive self-evaluation, as well as positive affection toward the self. This chapter challenges the existing universalistic view of self-esteem and the self-criticism view of self-esteem among Japanese citizens. Cross-cultural differences in self-evaluations and self-esteem, especially between Japan and North America, fit very well with the self-criticism hypothesis at the country level. However, if one takes a closer look at the individual level data and analyzes them as such, the attractiveness of the self-criticism hypothesis fades away. At the individual level, available evidence indicates that high self-esteem is associated with expectations of higher academic achievement and higher performance that are more persistent both in Japan and North America. People with high self-esteem among Japanese and North Americans also show more confidence in their social skills and initiate contacts more easily than their couterparts with low self-esteem. Furthermore, high self-esteem is strongly associated with higher expressed psychological well-being, again as in North America.

Motivated Expression of Self-esteem across Cultures

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Motivated Expression of Self-esteem across Cultures