The lithium ion battery is widely used in electric vehicles (EV) The battery degradation is the key scientific problem in battery research The battery aging limits its energy storage and power output capability, as well as the performance of the EV including the cost and life span Therefore, a comprehensive review on the key issues of the battery degradation among the whole life cycle is provided in this paper Firstly, the battery internal aging mechanisms are reviewed considering different anode and cathode materials for better understanding the battery fade characteristic Then, to get better life performance, the influence factors affecting battery life are discussed in detail from the perspectives of design, production and application Finally, considering the difference between the cell and system, the battery system degradation mechanism is discussed

A review on the key issues of the lithium ion battery degradation among the whole life cycle

Lithium-ion batteries are currently the most advanced electrochemical energy storage technology due to a favourable balance of performance and cost properties Driven by forecasted growth of the electric vehicles market, the cell production capacity for this technology is continuously being scaled up However, the demand for better performance, particularly higher energy densities and/or lower costs, has triggered research into post-lithium-ion technologies such as solid-state lithium metal, lithium–sulfur and lithium–air batteries as well as post-lithium technologies such as sodium-ion batteries Currently, these technologies are being intensively studied with regard to material chemistry and cell design In this Review, we expand on the current knowledge in this field Starting with a market outlook and an analysis of technological differences, we discuss the manufacturing processes of these technologies For each technology, we describe anode production, cathode production, cell assembly and conditioning We then evaluate the manufacturing compatibility of each technology with the lithium-ion production infrastructure and discuss the implications for processing costs Tremendous research progress has been made in the development of post-lithium-ion batteries (PLIBs), yet there is little discussion on the manufacturing of these upcoming technologies In this Review, the authors survey the current production status of several representative PLIBs and offer an industrial-scale manufacturing outlook

Post-lithium-ion battery cell production and its compatibility with lithium-ion cell production infrastructure

Production technology for automotive lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells and packs has improved considerably in the past five years. However, the transfer of developments in materials, cell design and processes from lab scale to production scale remains a challenge due to the large number of consecutive process steps and the significant impact of material properties, electrode compositions and cell designs on processes. This requires an in-depth understanding of the individual production processes and their interactions, and pilot-scale investigations into process parameter selection and prototype cell production. Furthermore, emerging process concepts must be developed at lab and pilot scale that reduce production costs and improve cell performance. Here, we present an introductory summary of the state-of-the-art production technologies for automotive LIBs. We then discuss the key relationships between process, quality and performance, as well as explore the impact of materials and processes on scale and cost. Finally, future developments and innovations that aim to overcome the main challenges are presented. The battery manufacturing process significantly affects battery performance. This Review provides an introductory overview of production technologies for automotive batteries and discusses the importance of understanding relationships between the production process and battery performance.

Current status and challenges for automotive battery production technologies

Silicon is considered a most promising anode material for overcoming the theoretical capacity limit of carbonaceous anodes. The use of nanomethods has led to significant progress being made with Si anodes to address the severe volume change during (de)lithiation. However, less progress has been made in the practical application of Si anodes in commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The drastic increase in the energy demands of diverse industries has led to the co-utilization of Si and graphite resurfacing as a commercially viable method for realizing high energy. Herein, we highlight the necessity for the co-utilization of graphite and Si for commercialization and discuss the development of graphite/Si anodes. Representative Si anodes used in graphite-blended electrodes are covered and a variety of strategies for building graphite/Si composites are organized according to their synthetic methods. The criteria for the co-utilization of graphite and Si are systematically presented. Finally, we provide suggestions for the commercialization of graphite/Si combinations.

Integration of Graphite and Silicon Anodes for the Commercialization of High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries - current state of the art and anticipated developments

Characterization of the calendering process for compaction of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries

In order to achieve a profound understanding of the production process of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries, methods to determine the (intermediate) product quality are a necessity. Therefore, a new, fast and easy to use two point method to determine the relative resistivity of dry electrodes has been established. The method is used to determine process-induced changes in the electrode’s structure. A materials testing machine is used to ensure a homogeneous and constant mechanical stress during the analysis. By applying a direct current and measuring the voltage drop the electron transport characteristic along the whole electrode cross-section, taking all battery relevant resistances into account, can be determined. The result is an easy to compare relative resistivity value including coating resistance, contact resistance between coating and adhering current collector as well as the contact resistances between sample and probe. Process-induced changes are clearly visible in the results. The influence of the main testing parameters – contact stress and applied current – is determined. To cross-check the results, an established ‘powder probe’ method is used to confirm the relative resistivity changes caused by calendering. Slight calendering of LiNiMnCoO2 cathodes leads to an increase in electrode resistivity as conductive pathways are broken by the applied shear forces. However, increasing the cathode density to 2.95 g/cm3 decreases resistivity by one third compared to uncalendered electrodes by re-establishing and shortening electrical pathways. Furthermore, a relative resistivity of anodes produced with a high energy powder mixing step is measured and shows that applying too much stress to the carbon black leads to a loss in long range conductivity, resulting in electrodes with an increased resistivity of up to 50%.

Influence of high intensive dry mixing and calendering on relative electrode resistivity determined via an advanced two point approach

Classification of Calendering‐Induced Electrode Defects and Their Influence on Subsequent Processes of Lithium‐Ion Battery Production

The process chain for production of lithium-ion battery electrodes commonly includes the compaction by calendering. This process step decisively determines the pore structure of the coating and therefore the electrochemical performance of the produced lithium-ion battery cells. For the targeted adjustment of the pore structure, it is of substantial interest to be able to control this process comprehensively. In this study, a Heckel-based model equation is supplemented by a predictive model for the lowest achievable coating porosity based on the theoretical packing structures of equally sized spheres. Using this approach, the influence of different active materials, varying in particle size distribution and mechanical characteristics, on the compaction behavior is examined. An addition of smaller particles as well as increased initial porosities due to coarser particles decrease the compaction resistance. Furthermore, the impact of increasing mass loadings of the coating on the compaction resistance is analysed, resulting in a linear proportional relationship for the considered range from 80 to 280 g/m2.

Process modeling of the electrode calendering of lithium-ion batteries regarding variation of cathode active materials and mass loadings

Heated Calendering of Cathodes for Lithium‐Ion Batteries with Varied Carbon Black and Binder Contents

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