Virus diseases that have emerged in the past two decades limit the production of important vegetable crops in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions worldwide, and many of the causal viruses are transmitted by whiteflies (order Hemiptera, family Aleyrodidae). Most of these whitefly-transmitted viruses are begomoviruses (family Geminiviridae), although whiteflies are also vectors of criniviruses, ipomoviruses, torradoviruses, and some carlaviruses. Factors driving the emergence and establishment of whitefly-transmitted diseases include genetic changes in the virus through mutation and recombination, changes in the vector populations coupled with polyphagy of the main vector, Bemisia tabaci, and long distance traffic of plant material or vector insects due to trade of vegetables and ornamental plants. The role of humans in increasing the emergence of virus diseases is obvious, and the effect that climate change may have in the future is unclear.

Emerging Virus Diseases Transmitted by Whiteflies

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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00401706.2021.1904738

Practical Statistics for Data Scientists: 50+ Essential Concepts Using R and Python.

The genus Crinivirus includes the whitefly-transmitted members of the family Closteroviridae. Whitefly-transmitted viruses have emerged as a major problem for world agriculture and are responsible for diseases that lead to losses measured in the billions of dollars annually. Criniviruses emerged as a major agricultural threat at the end of the twentieth century with the establishment and naturalization of their whitefly vectors, members of the genera Trialeurodes and Bemisia, in temperate climates around the globe. Several criniviruses cause significant diseases in single infections whereas others remain asymptomatic and only cause disease when found in mixed infections with other viruses. Characterization of the majority of criniviruses has been done in the last twenty years and this article provides a detailed review on the epidemiology of this important group of viruses.

/pdf/epidemiology-of-criniviruses-an-emerging-problem-in-world-24qx0kofyl.pdf

Epidemiology of criniviruses: an emerging problem in world agriculture

Most plant viruses require a biological vector to spread from plant to plant in nature. Among biological vectors for plant viruses, hemipteroid insects are the most common, including phloem-feeding aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs, planthoppers, and leafhoppers. A majority of the emerging diseases challenging agriculture worldwide are insect borne, with those transmitted by whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) topping the list. Most damaging whitefly-transmitted viruses include begomoviruses (Geminiviridae), criniviruses (Closteroviridae), and torradoviruses (Secoviridae). Among the whitefly vectors, Bemisia tabaci, now recognized as a complex of cryptic species, is the most harmful in terms of virus transmission. Here, we review the available information on the differential transmission efficiency of begomoviruses and other whitefly-borne viruses by different species of whiteflies, including the cryptic species of the B. tabaci complex. In addition, we summarize the factors affecting transmission of viruses by whiteflies and point out some future research prospects.

/pdf/transmission-of-begomoviruses-and-other-whitefly-borne-2ib4plp8bh.pdf

Transmission of Begomoviruses and Other Whitefly-Borne Viruses: Dependence on the Vector Species

Whiteflies are a key pest of crops in open-field production throughout the tropics and subtropics. This is due in large part to the long and diverse list of devastating plant viruses transmitted by these vectors. Open-field production provides many challenges to manage these viruses and in many cases adequate management has not been possible. Diseases caused by whitefly-transmitted viruses have become limiting factors in open-field production of a wide range of crops, i.e., bean golden mosaic disease in beans, tomato yellow leaf curl disease in tomato, cassava mosaic disease and cassava brown streak disease in cassava, and cotton leaf crumple disease in cotton. While host resistance has proven to be the most cost-effective management solution, few examples of host resistance have been developed to date. The main strategy to limit the incidence of virus-infected plants has been the application of insecticides to reduce vector populations aided to some extent by the use of selected cultural practices. However, due to concerns about the effect of insecticides on pollinators, consumer demand for reduced pesticide use, and the ability of the whitefly vectors to develop insecticide-resistance, there is a growing need to develop and deploy strategies that do not rely on insecticides. The reduction in pesticide use will greatly increase the need for genetic resistance to more viruses in more crop plants. Resistance combined with selected IPM strategies could become a viable means to increase yields in crops produced in open fields despite the presence of whitefly-transmitted viruses.

Management of whitefly-transmitted viruses in open-field production systems.

Bemisia tabaci biotype B is considered to be the primary vector of Sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus (SPCSV, Crinivirus). However, Trialeurodes abutiloneus also has been shown to transmit SPCSV in a semipersistent manner. Mixed infection of SPCSV with the aphid-transmitted Sweet potato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV, Potyvirus) causes sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas) virus disease (SPVD), the major virus disease affecting this crop. High populations of B. afer sensu lato are seasonally associated with sweetpotato in Peru during times of low B. tabaci incidence. The transmission of SPCSV (in single and double infection with SPFMV) by laboratory-reared B. afer sensu lato and B. tabaci biotype B was investigated. For SPCSV transmission efficiency, individual adult insects were allowed 48 h for acquisition and inoculation access periods at both 20 and 25°C. SPCSV was transmitted by both whiteflies, with similar transmission efficiency when the virus was acquired from plants singly infected by SPCSV or doubly infected with SPCSV and SPFMV, at 20 and 25°C. We conclude that B. afer sensu lato is a newly identified vector of SPCSV. This finding may have important epidemiological significance for the spread of SPCSV and SPVD.

https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/pdf/10.1094/PDIS-94-5-0510

Bemisia afer sensu lato, a Vector of Sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus

Since it was first formally recorded there in 2005, the Nearctic pine tortoise scale Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) has caused severe decline of the Caribbean pine, Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis (Grisebach) W. H. Barrett & Golfari, in the pine forests on the Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI). The scale infestations reduce host vigor, cause dieback and high levels of mortality. Honeydew excreted by the insects enables the growth of associated sooty molds to smother the under-storey plants inhibiting their growth. Surveys carried out on the islands suggest that the entire Caribbean pine population in the TCI is under immediate threat from this invasive pest, with potentially devastating effects on the pineyard ecosystem. The biology, distribution, impact and economic importance of the pine tortoise scale are reviewed.

/pdf/toumeyella-parvicornis-hemiptera-coccidae-causing-severe-2l149x373q.pdf

Toumeyella parvicornis (Hemiptera: Coccidae), Causing Severe Decline of Pinus caribaea var. Bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos Islands

The results of an investigation of scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea) in Alytus, Kaunas and Marijampolė counties of southern Lithuania by the first two authors during a week in August 2009 are presented. Two further samples from Klaipėda and four samples from Vilnius counties are also included. Twenty-eight species of scale insect are recorded, of which ten are new for Lithuania: Diaspidiotus Bavaricus (Lindinger), D. ostreaeformis (Curtis), Eriococcus baldonensis (Rasiņa), E. inermis Green, Eriopeltis stammeri Schmutterer, Mirococcopsis subterraneus (Newstead), Orthezia urticae (Linnaeus), Peliococcus ‘chersonensis group’, Phyllostroma myrtilli (Kaltenbach) and Puto pilosellae (Sulc). The highest number of species (twenty-seven) was found in Alytus county, representing 73% of the native coccoid fauna. This may be due at least in part to it being the most southern and the most forested county with large areas under protection. Twelve species were recorded from Kaunas, seven from Marijampolė, one from Kl...

New Data on the Scale Insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea) of Southern Lithuania, including Ten Species New for the Country

Albizia psyllid, Acizzia jamatonica (Kuwayama), and red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore, were found in Montenegro for the first time during 2009 and 2012 respectively. Acizzia jamatonica is native to East Asia, and has spread rapidly in Europe since it was first reported from Italy in 2002. It was first collected from Albizzia julibrissin in Podgorica, September 2009, and subsequently from Albizzia sp. and A. julibrissin in Herceg Novi, October 2010, and June and October 2012, and from A. julibrissin in Kotor, October 2012. Glycaspis brimblecombei is native to Australia, and has been rapidly spreading in Europe since it was first reported from Portugal and Spain in 2007. It was collected on Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Bar, October 2012. Both species of psyllid have the potential to damage amenity trees in urban environments and in commercial plant nurseries.

http://aes.bio.bg.ac.rs/index.php/aes/article/download/2/2

First records of acizzia jamatonica (kuwayama) and glycaspis brimblecombei moore, (hemiptera: psyllidae, aphalaridae) in montenegro

Trapping confirms aerial recruitment of pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell)) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in the Turks and Caicos Islands.

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