High-pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses have arisen from low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) viruses via changes in the hemagglutinin proteolytic cleavage site, which include mutation of multiple nonbasic to basic amino acids, duplication of basic amino acids, or recombination with insertion of cellular or viral amino acids. Between 1959 and 2019, a total of 42 natural, independent H5 (n = 15) and H7 (n = 27) LPAI to HPAI virus conversion events have occurred in Europe (n = 16), North America (n = 9), Oceania (n = 7), Asia (n = 5), Africa (n = 4), and South America (n = 1). Thirty-eight of these HPAI outbreaks were limited in the number of poultry premises affected and were eradicated. However, poultry outbreaks caused by A/goose/Guangdong/1/1996 (H5Nx), Mexican H7N3, and Chinese H7N9 HPAI lineages have continued. Active surveillance and molecular detection and characterization efforts will provide the best opportunity for early detection and eradication from domestic birds.

/pdf/pathobiological-origins-and-evolutionary-history-of-highly-45gx4lb016.pdf

Pathobiological Origins and Evolutionary History of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses.

Influenza A virus is one of the most important zoonotic pathogens that can cause severe symptoms and has the potential to cause high number of deaths and great economic loss. Vaccination is still the best option to prevent influenza virus infection. Different types of influenza vaccines, including live attenuated virus vaccines, inactivated whole virus vaccines, virosome vaccines, split-virion vaccines and subunit vaccines have been developed. However, they have several limitations, such as the relatively high manufacturing cost and long production time, moderate efficacy of some of the vaccines in certain populations, and lack of cross-reactivity. These are some of the problems that need to be solved. Here, we summarized recent advances in the development and application of different types of influenza vaccines, including the recent development of viral vectored influenza vaccines. We also described the construction of other vaccines that are based on recombinant influenza viruses as viral vectors. Information provided in this review article might lead to the development of safe and highly effective novel influenza vaccines.

/pdf/advances-in-development-and-application-of-influenza-1irmibokz6.pdf

Advances in Development and Application of Influenza Vaccines.

Membrane-enveloped viruses are a leading cause of viral epidemics, and there is an outstanding need to develop broad-spectrum antiviral strategies to treat and prevent enveloped virus infections. In this review, we critically discuss why the lipid membrane surrounding enveloped virus particles is a promising antiviral target and cover the latest progress in nanotechnology research to design and evaluate membrane-targeting virus inhibition strategies. These efforts span diverse topics such as nanomaterials, self-assembly, biosensors, nanomedicine, drug delivery, and medical devices and have excellent potential to support the development of next-generation antiviral drug candidates and technologies. Application examples in the areas of human medicine and agricultural biosecurity are also presented. Looking forward, research in this direction is poised to strengthen capabilities for virus pandemic preparedness and demonstrates how nanotechnology strategies can help to solve global health challenges related to infectious diseases.

Stopping Membrane-Enveloped Viruses with Nanotechnology Strategies: Toward Antiviral Drug Development and Pandemic Preparedness

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2022.102021

The relationship among avian influenza, gut microbiota and chicken immunity: an updated overview

Posttranslational modifications, such as SUMOylation, play specific roles in the life cycle of invading pathogens However, the effect of SUMOylation on the adaptation, pathogenesis, and transmission of influenza A virus (IAV) remains largely unknown Here, we found that a conserved lysine residue at position 612 (K612) of the polymerase basic protein 1 (PB1) of IAV is a bona fide SUMOylation site SUMOylation of PB1 at K612 had no effect on the stability or cellular localization of PB1, but was critical for viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complex activity and virus replication in vitro When tested in vivo, we found that the virulence of SUMOylation-defective PB1/K612R mutant IAVs was highly attenuated in mice Moreover, the airborne transmission of a 2009 pandemic H1N1 PB1/K612R mutant virus was impaired in ferrets, resulting in reversion to wild-type PB1 K612 Mechanistically, SUMOylation at K612 was essential for PB1 to act as the enzymatic core of the viral polymerase by preserving its ability to bind viral RNA Our study reveals an essential role for PB1 K612 SUMOylation in the pathogenesis and transmission of IAVs, which can be targeted for the design of anti-influenza therapies

/pdf/viral-rna-binding-ability-conferred-by-sumoylation-at-pb1-1yb4ufpqzy.pdf

Viral RNA-binding ability conferred by SUMOylation at PB1 K612 of influenza A virus is essential for viral pathogenesis and transmission.

In early 2013, human infections caused by a novel H7N9 avian influenza virus (AIV) were first reported in China; these infections caused severe disease and death. The virus was initially low pathogenic to poultry, enabling it to spread widely in different provinces, especially in live poultry markets. Importantly, the H7N9 low pathogenic AIVs (LPAIVs) evolved into highly pathogenic AIVs (HPAIVs) in the beginning of 2017, causing a greater threat to human health and devastating losses to the poultry industry. Fortunately, nationwide vaccination of chickens with an H5/H7 bivalent inactivated avian influenza vaccine since September 2017 has successfully controlled H7N9 avian influenza infections in poultry and, importantly, has also prevented human infections. In this review, we summarize the biological properties of the H7N9 viruses, specifically their genetic evolution, adaptation, pathogenesis, receptor binding, transmission, drug resistance, and antigenic variation, as well as the prevention and control measures. The information obtained from investigating and managing the H7N9 viruses could improve our ability to understand other novel AIVs and formulate effective measures to control their threat to humans and animals.

/pdf/h7n9-influenza-virus-in-china-vy98il9a7c.pdf

H7N9 Influenza Virus in China

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H7N9 Influenza Virus in China