Meat analogue research and development focuses on the production of sustainable products that recreate conventional meat in its physical sensations (texture, appearance, taste, etc.) and nutritional aspects. Minced products, like burger patties and nuggets, muscle-type products, like chicken or steak-like cuts, and emulsion products, like Frankfurter and Mortadella type sausages, are the major categories of meat analogues. In this review, we discuss key ingredients for the production of these novel products, with special focus on protein sources, and underline the importance of ingredient functionality. Our observation is that structuring processes are optimized based on ingredients that were not originally designed for meat analogues applications. Therefore, mixing and blending different plant materials to obtain superior functionality is for now the common practice. We observed though that an alternative approach towards the use of ingredients such as flours, is gaining more interest. The emphasis, in this case, is on functionality towards use in meat analogues, rather than classical functionality such as purity and solubility. Another trend is the exploration of novel protein sources such as seaweed, algae and proteins produced via fermentation (cellular agriculture).

Functionality of Ingredients and Additives in Plant-Based Meat Analogues

Effects of material characteristics on the structural characteristics and flavor substances retention of meat analogs

Background Proteins are essential nutrients required in various body functions and normal human life. However, in the food industry, the application of proteins especially those of plant origin have been limited due to their poor functionality. Although nowadays, diverse modification techniques are usually employed to improve their performance in food products, it is also important that effective methods for monitoring the resultant conformational changes induced during protein modification are developed. Scope and approach In this review, the relationship between protein conformation and functionality is briefly discussed. Thereafter, the underlying principles behind five selected spectroscopic techniques i.e. Fourier transform infrared, Raman, circular dichroism, fluorescence, and ultraviolet spectroscopies are introduced and their recent applications for monitoring conformational changes that occur during physical, chemical or enzymatic modification of proteins are addressed. In addition, the advantages and limitations of each spectroscopic technique are comparatively discussed and perspectives on the current situation alongside future trends are highlighted. Key findings and conclusions Spectroscopic techniques present an attractive panacea for evaluation of conformational changes during protein modification. Although certain challenges especially with complex food materials require urgent attention thus, more robust spectroscopic solutions should be exploited in the future.

Principles and applications of spectroscopic techniques for evaluating food protein conformational changes: A review

Increasing awareness of inefficient meat production and its future impact on global food security has led the food industry to look for a sustainable approach. Meat products have superior sensorial perception, because of their molecular composition and fibrous structure. Current understanding in the science of food structuring has enabled the utilization of alternative or nonmeat protein ingredients to create novel structured matrices that could resemble the textural functionality of real meat. The physicochemical and structural changes that occur in concentrated protein systems during thermomechanical processing lead to the creation of a fibrous or layered meat-like texture. Phase transitions in concentrated protein systems during protein-protein, protein-polysaccharide, protein-lipid, and protein-water interactions significantly influence the texture and the overall sensory quality of meat analogs. This review summarizes the roles of raw materials (moisture, protein type and concentration, lipids, polysaccharides, and air) and processing parameters (temperature, pH, and shear) in modulating the behavior of the protein phase during the restructuring process (structure-function-process relationship). The big challenge for the food industry is to manufacture concept-based (such as beef-like, chicken-like, etc.) meat analogs with controlled structural attributes. This information will be useful in developing superior meat analogs that fulfill consumer expectations when replacing meat in their diet.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1541-4337.12721

Meat analogs: Protein restructuring during thermomechanical processing

High moisture extrusion of wheat gluten: Relationship between process parameters, protein polymerization, and final product characteristics

Wheat gluten comprises a good quality and inexpensive vegetable protein with an ideal amino acid composition. To expand the potential application of wheat gluten in the food industry, the effect of different additives on the physicochemical and structural properties of wheat gluten/starch mixtures during twin-screw extrusion was investigated.; Results: Macromolecules were observed to form in wheat gluten/starch mixtures during twin-screw extrusion, which may be attributed to the formation of new disulfide bonds and non-covalent interactions, as well as Maillard reaction products. Additionally, the water retention capacity and in vitro protein digestibility of all extruded wheat gluten/starch products significantly increased, whereas the nitrogen solubility index and free sulfhydryl group (SH) content decreased, during twin-screw extrusion. Secondary structural analysis showed that α-helices disappeared with the concomitant increase of antiparallel β-sheets, demonstrating the occurrence of protein aggregation. Microstructures suggested that the irregular wheat gluten granular structure was disrupted, with additive addition favoring transformation into a more layered or fibrous structure during twin-screw extrusion.; Conclusion: The findings of the present study demonstrate that extrusion might affect the texture and quality of extruded wheat gluten-based foods and suggest that this process might serve as a basis for the high-value application of wheat gluten products. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.; © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Formation of macromolecules in wheat gluten/starch mixtures during twin-screw extrusion: effect of different additives.

The invention relates to a method for preparing textured wheat protein by adopting twin-screw extrusion. The method specifically comprises the following steps: adding powdery wheat protein and starch to a mixing stirrer to be stirred and mixed evenly; adding the mixture into a solid feeder of a high-torque twin-screw extrusion system, stirring and mixing evenly again; and adding to a high-torque twin-screw extruder to be extruded; cutting, drying and cooling extruded materials, so as to prepare the textured wheat protein product, wherein the moisture content is smaller than or equal to 13%, the puffing rate is greater than or equal to 1.20; the rehydration rate is greater than or equal to 190%; the water holding capacity is greater than or equal to 180%; the hardness of the rehydrated product is 7.00-12.50kg; the elasticity is 0.500-0.750; the chewiness is 2200-3550; the adhesion is -65.00 to -17.50g.sec; and the texturizing degree is greater than or equal to 2.0. The method is stable in processing process, simple in operation, and low in processing cost; the produced textured wheat protein product is abundant in nutrition, easy to digest, long in quality guarantee period, and good in cooking processing stability; the wheat protein resource is reasonably utilized; and the additional value of the wheat protein product is increased.

Method for preparing textured wheat protein by adopting twin-screw extrusion

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Formation of macromolecules in wheat gluten/starch mixtures during twin-screw extrusion: effect of different additives.

Method for preparing textured wheat protein by adopting twin-screw extrusion