Next-generation biofuels and platform biochemicals from lignocellulosic biomass

The integrated approach in biorefinery mainly involves the utilization of various agroindustrial byproducts as raw materials for the production of several biobased products like biofuels, bioenergy, and other high-value chemicals. Biofuels are the backbone of biorefineries, however, production of value-added biomolecules such as biopigments, biopolymers, biosurfactants, nutritional yeast, etc. have been atracting a great attention. The production of these biomolecules using traditional approaches have been extensively studied in last few years due to their promising application in different industries such as chemical, food/feed, and pharmaceutical for the development of novel products for mankind. Moreover, the production of such biomolecules using lignocellulosic, starchy and some other agroindustrial byproducts is still not fully explored. Hence, there is a huge scope in the development of sustainable biorefining approaches to make the technology cost-effective. The lignocellulosic biomasses usually used in biorefineries are mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, whereas starchy materials, besides starch, usually contain, protein, lipids and some micronutrients. The processing of these biomasses through successive steps like pretreatments, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation is essentially required to obtained final biobased products. Considering certain bottlenecks of above-mentioned conventional biorefineries approaches, new technologies have been proposed for the improved pretreatment of biomass and efficient enzymatic hydrolysis in order to minimize the concentration of toxic inhibitors in resulting hydrolysate. In this review, we highlighted on different agroindustrial byproducts and their applications for the production of valuable biorefinery products.

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Agroindustrial Byproducts for the Generation of Biobased Products: Alternatives for Sustainable Biorefineries

Enhanced production of natural yellow pigments from Monascus purpureus by liquid culture: The relationship between fermentation conditions and mycelial morphology.

Malic acid production from biodiesel derived crude glycerol using morphologically controlled Aspergillus niger in batch fermentation

The microbial production of fumaric acid by Rhizopus arrhizus NRRL 2582 has been evaluated using soybean cake from biodiesel production processes and very high polarity (VHP) sugar from sugarcane mills. Soybean cake was converted into a nutrient-rich hydrolysate via a two-stage bioprocess involving crude enzyme production via solid state fermentations (SSF) of either Aspergillus oryzae or R. arrhizus cultivated on soybean cake followed by enzymatic hydrolysis of soybean cake. The soybean cake hydrolysate produced using crude enzymes derived via SSF of R. arrhizus was supplemented with VHP sugar and evaluated using different initial free amino nitrogen (FAN) concentrations (100, 200, and 400 mg/L) in fed-batch cultures for fumaric acid production. The highest fumaric acid concentration (27.3 g/L) and yield (0.7 g/g of total consumed sugars) were achieved when the initial FAN concentration was 200 mg/L. The combination of VHP sugar with soybean cake hydrolysate derived from crude enzymes produced by SSF of A. oryzae at 200 mg/L initial FAN concentration led to the production of 40 g/L fumaric acid with a yield of 0.86 g/g of total consumed sugars. The utilization of sugarcane molasses led to low fumaric acid production by R. arrhizus, probably due to the presence of various minerals and phenolic compounds. The promising results achieved through the valorization of VHP sugar and soybean cake suggest that a focused study on molasses pretreatment could lead to enhanced fumaric acid production.

Fumaric acid production using renewable resources from biodiesel and cane sugar production processes

In this study, algae of Aegagropila linnaei (AL) was selected as low-cost raw material to synthesize biochar/iron oxide composites for the removal of bisphenol-A (BPA). Pristine biochar (BC) with olive-shaped pores and KOH-activated acid washed biochar (ABC) with novel interconnected structure were successfully prepared and further functionalized with ferrous sulfate for effective soldering of Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles onto the surface of acid biochar through hydrothermal method. The iron modified acid biochar composite (FABC) was found to be with the optimal physicochemical property such as smaller crystalline size (100–150 nm), larger surface area (144.62 m 2 /g), larger pore volume (0.259 cm 3 /g), lower capacitance decrease (2.3%), and lower resistance (0.73 Ω ) as compared to other modified biochar. The removal rates of BPA by BC, ABC, and FABC were 43.2 ± 0.5%, 52.6 ± 0.3%, and 69.8 ± 2.3%, respectively, when the concentration of BPA was 10 mg/L (pH 3.0, 303k). Under acidic conditions (at pH 3.0), the reaction activity and the adsorption of hydrogen ions onto Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles in FABC was prompted, and further increasing the removal rate of BPA. The result suggests that adsorption played main role, while active species ( ⋅ OH and ⋅ O 2 − ) produced by the nano-iron oxide on the surface of the composites played some effect in the removal of BPA. • Aegagropila linnaei algae was used to prepare iron modified acid biochar composite. • Biochar/iron oxide composite can be successfully produced by hydrothermal process. • Biochar/iron oxide composite could increase the removal of BPA under low pH condition. • ROS generated by the composite is responsible for oxidation removal of BPA. 

Development of a novel biochar/iron oxide composite from green algae for bisphenol-A removal: Adsorption and Fenton-like reaction

The transport properties inside a nanosize conduit, such as viscosity and density, deviate from those reported at unconfined conditions with an identical pressure and temperature. The deviation from the nominal value is well studied for the simple topology in nanofluidics. A straight circular tube is an example of a simple topology. The pore space inside the matrix of a shale formation is also a nanofluidic system, because its characteristic size is smaller than or equal to 100 nm, but it includes a complex structure. With this in mind, we determine the pore-throat and pore-body size distributions of different shales whose data are available in the literature. The main objective is to quantitatively distinguish the two sizes, whose importance is overlooked in the study of shale formations. The pore-throat size distribution is determined from mercury injection capillary pressure measurements, and the pore-body size distribution is derived from nitrogen adsorption–desorption. The acyclic pore model, which is physically representative of the pore space at the core scale, allows us to interpret the petrophysical measurements. Our study of different shales shows that the average pore-body size is usually larger than 20 nm; thus, there is no need to account for the pore proximity (confinement). The pore-throat size distributions of different shales usually fall below 20 nm, which entails the modification of a transport property that is relevant to the formation resistance against the flow.

Pore Size of Shale Based on Acyclic Pore Model

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has a strong oxidation effect when absorbing ultraviolet light. Therefore, when TiO2 is used as a light stabilizer in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), it will cause the photodegradation of PVC. Herein, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) coated TiO2 composite (TiO2@CQDs) was prepared by a one-step hydrothermal method. The prepared TiO2@CQDs were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV–Vis spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The photostability of PVC film containing TiO2@CQDs was investigated via photodegradation conductivity test, weight loss rate test, and ultraviolet aging test. Due to the down-conversion effect of CQDs under ultraviolet light, its existence can alleviate the photoaging of PVC. In addition, the thermal stability of PVC containing TiO2@CQDs was studied by conductivity tests and oven thermal aging tests. The presence of CQDs significantly improved the thermal stability of PVC. Meanwhile, the HCl absorption capacity of CQDs could reach 30.8 mg/gcat. According to the DFT calculations, this high absorption capacity is attributed to the HCl immobilization effect via forming hydrogen bonds between HCl and the keto oxygen, carboxyl keto oxygen in CQDs. The hydroxyl group in CQDs could also combine ZnCl2 by forming a coordination bond. 

Improvement of photostability and thermal stability of
 PVC
 by carbon quantum dots loaded on
 
 TiO
 2


Pasteurization, acidification followed by pasteurization, and autoclave extended the shelf-life of cooked noodles (groups S1, S2 and S3) to 3, 180 and 180 days, respectively. Pasteurization increased the hardness of cooked noodles from 53.60 to 58.01 N. However, the growth of thermoduric bacteria caused a decrease in pH, coloration, and hardness of group S1 during storage. Meanwhile, the pH and hardness of group S2 decreased to 4.42 and 39.22 N respectively, while hardness and chewiness increased during storage. In addition, physicochemical-textural characteristics of group S3 are maintained throughout storage. The hardness of groups S1 and S2 is related to the gluten structure. The compact gluten network formed after pasteurization. Meanwhile, acidification inhibited the polymerization of glutenin and gliadin. The starch melted after autoclave, masking the impact of the gluten network and decreasing hardness. During storage, hydrolysis of protein and starch by bacteria resulted in the deterioration of group S1. Recrystallization of starch resulted in the stiffening of group S2. The absence of metabolism of bacteria and presence of stable gluten in group S3 contributed to the stable starch structures, inducing its stable quality. Thermal treatment can be recommended as an effective additional treatment for producing shelf-stable wet instant cooked noodles. 

Effects of thermal treatment on the microbial shelf-life and quality stability of wet instant cooked noodles during storage

Pickling wastewater is rich in Fe(II) and commonly neutralised by limestone to precipitate Fe as waste Fe-rich sludge. Herein, an alternative reutilisation route was developed to recycle Fe from pickling wastewater as polymeric Fe/S rods for the effective removal of phosphate from the actual electrophoresis effluent. Results showed that irregular ferrous oxyhydroxide predominated in the precipitated sludge after the direct neutralisation of wastewater and was then converted into coarse spherical particles after alkaline heating at 80 °C for 24 h under atmospheric condition. After adding nitrite to oxide Fe(II) in pickling wastewater, ferric oxyhydroxide and magnetite were formed in the sludge and were converted into polymeric Fe/S-bearing rods with the same procedure. The rods had a one-dimensional polymeric (FeS 2 ) n n- structure of KFeS 2 crystal with 200 nm diameter and 2–5 μm length and was spontaneously hydrolysed in pH range of 3–9 to fine colloids with abundant hydroxyl/sulfhydryl groups. The optimal dosage of polymeric Fe/S-bearing rods was 10 g/L, where the phosphate removal was 99.6 %, and the remaining phosphate was only 0.47 mg/L in the treated electrophoresis effluent. During the KFeS 2 rods synthesis, an alkaline supernatant was generated, but was recycled to prepare rods in the next round, and the prepared rods also showed high removal efficiency of phosphate. For instance, by adding 6.67 g/L prepared rods, the phosphate removal achieved by 94.5 %, approximated to that of fresh one (95.3 %). In summary, Fe was recycled from pickling wastewater as polymeric Fe/S-bearing rods without generating any secondary waste and the rods were effective in the treatment of phosphate-rich wastewater. • Recycling of Fe from pickling wastewater as polymeric Fe/S rods under atmosphere condition; • Complete recycling of used alkaline solution in the next round without any secondary waste; • Spontaneous hydrolysis of polymeric Fe/S-bearing rods as Fe/S colloids; • The Fe/S colloids showed hydroxyl/sulfydryl groups for phosphate coordination. 

Recovery of Fe from steel pickling wastewater as polymeric Fe/S rods for effective adsorption of phosphate from electrophoresis effluent

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Development of a novel biochar/iron oxide composite from green algae for bisphenol-A removal: Adsorption and Fenton-like reaction

Pore Size of Shale Based on Acyclic Pore Model

Improvement of photostability and thermal stability of PVC by carbon quantum dots loaded on TiO 2

Effects of thermal treatment on the microbial shelf-life and quality stability of wet instant cooked noodles during storage

Recovery of Fe from steel pickling wastewater as polymeric Fe/S rods for effective adsorption of phosphate from electrophoresis effluent