Studies of nanosized forms of bismuth (Bi)-containing materials have recently expanded from optical, chemical, electronic, and engineering fields towards biomedicine, as a result of their safety, cost-effective fabrication processes, large surface area, high stability, and high versatility in terms of shape, size, and porosity. Bi, as a nontoxic and inexpensive diamagnetic heavy metal, has been used for the fabrication of various nanoparticles (NPs) with unique structural, physicochemical, and compositional features to combine various properties, such as a favourably high X-ray attenuation coefficient and near-infrared (NIR) absorbance, excellent light-to-heat conversion efficiency, and a long circulation half-life. These features have rendered bismuth-containing nanoparticles (BiNPs) with desirable performance for combined cancer therapy, photothermal and radiation therapy (RT), multimodal imaging, theranostics, drug delivery, biosensing, and tissue engineering. Bismuth oxyhalides (BiOx, where X is Cl, Br or I) and bismuth chalcogenides, including bismuth oxide, bismuth sulfide, bismuth selenide, and bismuth telluride, have been heavily investigated for therapeutic purposes. The pharmacokinetics of these BiNPs can be easily improved via the facile modification of their surfaces with biocompatible polymers and proteins, resulting in enhanced colloidal stability, extended blood circulation, and reduced toxicity. Desirable antibacterial effects, bone regeneration potential, and tumor growth suppression under NIR laser radiation are the main biomedical research areas involving BiNPs that have opened up a new paradigm for their future clinical translation. This review emphasizes the synthesis and state-of-the-art progress related to the biomedical applications of BiNPs with different structures, sizes, and compositions. Furthermore, a comprehensive discussion focusing on challenges and future opportunities is presented.

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The versatile biomedical applications of bismuth-based nanoparticles and composites: therapeutic, diagnostic, biosensing, and regenerative properties

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) based electrochemical biosensors for early cancer diagnosis in vitro

Direct-Laser-Writing of Metal Sulfide-Graphene Nanocomposite Photoelectrode toward Sensitive Photoelectrochemical Sensing

Bismuth-containing semiconductors for photoelectrochemical sensing and biosensing

As a kind of excellent biomaterials, deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs) have been employed to build a variety of biosensors via the interactions between DNAs and biomolecules or chemical compounds. The DNA-based electrochemical biosensors with the advantages of easy operation, rapid response and low cost have been widely used in biochemical analysis with high sensitivity and selectivity. However, most of the DNA-based electrochemical biosensors require the labeling of electroactive molecules or nanomaterials on DNAs as signal read-out elements, which thus inevitably suffer from complicated operation and expensive cost. Label-free strategies are alternatives for DNA-based electrochemical biosensors without additional assay reagents and tedious procedures. Because of the merits of simplicity and low cost, DNA-based label-free electrochemical biosensors have attracted tremendous attention from researchers as a promising analytical technology. In this review, the principles and applications of DNA-based label-free electrochemical biosensing systems including heterogeneous and homogeneous modes with various amplification strategies have been introduced and summarized systematically. Furthermore, the present challenges and further perspectives of the DNA-based label-free electrochemical biosensors are highlighted.

DNA-based label-free electrochemical biosensors: From principles to applications

An electrochemical biosensor based on the enhanced quasi-reversible redox signal of prussian blue generated by self-sacrificial label of iron metal-organic framework.

We demonstrate for the first time the development of a mimic peroxidase- and bismuth sulfide (Bi2S3) nanorod-based photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensor for signal-on detection of polynucleotide kinase (PNK) on the basis of manganese-based mimic enzyme (MnME) catalytic precipitation. We use the hybrid film which consists of Bi2S3 nanorods and Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) as the immobilization matrix of capture probe. The capture probe on the modified electrode can specifically hybridize with the MnME@AuNPs-labeled signal probe to form the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), generating a PEC biosensor. In the absence of PNK, MnME may stimulate the mimic enzyme catalytic precipitation onto the electrode surface, blocking the interfacial electron transfer and eventually leading to a low PEC signal. While in the presence of PNK, the dsDNA is phosphorylated and subsequently cleaved by lambda exonuclease to release the MnME@AuNPs conjugates from the electrode, leading to the decrease of catalytic precipitation on the surfa...

Mimic Peroxidase- and Bi2S3 Nanorod-Based Photoelectrochemical Biosensor for Signal-On Detection of Polynucleotide Kinase

DNA glycosylases are responsible for recognition and excision of the damaged bases in the base excision repair pathway, and all mammals express multiple DNA glycosylases to maintain genome stability. However, simultaneous detection of multiple DNA glycosylase still remains a great challenge. Here, we develop a rapid and sensitive fluorescent method for simultaneous detection of human 8-oxoG DNA glycosylase 1 (hOGG1) and uracil DNA glycolase (UDG) using exonuclease-assisted recycling signal amplification in combination with fluorescent bases 2-aminopurine (2-AP) and pyrrolo-dC (P-dC) as the fluorophores. We design a bifunctional DNA probe modified with one 8-oxoG and five uracil bases, which can hybridize with the trigger probes to form a sandwiched DNA substrate for hOGG1 and UDG. In addition, we design 2-AP and P-dC signal probes as the hairpin structures with 2-AP and P-dC in the stems. The presence of hOGG1 and UDG may initiate the signal amplification process by the recycling lambda exonuclease digest...

Homogeneously Sensitive Detection of Multiple DNA Glycosylases with Intrinsically Fluorescent Nucleotides

DNA 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) is an important epigenetic biomarker for tumorigenesis, and the loss of 5-hmC levels is associated with leukemia and melanoma cancers. However, it is a great challenge to discriminate 5-hmC from 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) using the conventional bisulfite conversion methods. Herein, we report a label-free and immobilization-free electrochemical magnetobiosensor for sensitive quantification of 5-hmC in genomic DNA based on a dual signal amplification strategy coupled with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TDT) enzymatic amplification and Ru(III) redox cycling. This screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE)-based electrochemical magnetobiosensor shows distinct advantages of having low cost and simple fabrication and being label-free, immobilization-free, PCR-free, and radioactive-free. It exhibits high sensitivity with a detection limit of as low as 9.06 fM and a large dynamic range from 0.01 to 1000 pM. Importantly, this biosensor can discriminate 5-hmC from cytosine and 5...

Label-Free and Immobilization-Free Electrochemical Magnetobiosensor for Sensitive Detection of 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in Genomic DNA

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An electrochemical biosensor based on the enhanced quasi-reversible redox signal of prussian blue generated by self-sacrificial label of iron metal-organic framework.

Mimic Peroxidase- and Bi2S3 Nanorod-Based Photoelectrochemical Biosensor for Signal-On Detection of Polynucleotide Kinase

Homogeneously Sensitive Detection of Multiple DNA Glycosylases with Intrinsically Fluorescent Nucleotides

Label-Free and Immobilization-Free Electrochemical Magnetobiosensor for Sensitive Detection of 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in Genomic DNA