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The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: Toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging

Imitative deficits have been associated with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) for many years, most recently through more robust methodologies. A fresh, systematic review of the significance, characteristics, and underlying mechanism of the association is therefore warranted. From 121 candidates, we focused on 21 well-controlled studies involving 281 cases of ASD. Overall, children with ASD performed worse on imitative tasks (Combined Logit p value < .00005). The emerging picture is of delayed development in imitation, implicating a deficit in mapping neural codings for actions between sensory and motor modalities, rather than in motivation or executive function. We hypothesise that ASD is characterised by abnormal development of these mappings, such that they are biased towards object-oriented tasks at the expense of those required for action imitation per se.

A Systematic Review of Action Imitation in Autistic Spectrum Disorder

Background: The aims of this study were to measure objectively the extent and severity of motor impairment in children with Asperger's syndrome and to determine whether the motor difficulties experienced by such children differed in any way from those classified as having a Specific Developmental Disorder of Motor Function (SDD-MF). Criteria derived from ICD 10-R were used to identify 11 children with Asperger's syndrome and a matched group of 9 children with a Specific Developmental Disorder of Motor Function. Children in both groups were required to have a verbal IQ of 80 or greater on the WISC IIIR. Method: The Autism Diagnostic Interview (Revised; Lord, Rutter, & LeCouteur, 1994) was used to identify features of AS in the first group and to exclude them in the latter. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Henderson & Sugden, 1992) provided a standardised test of motor impairment. A Gesture Test based on that by Cermak, Coster, and Drake (1980) was used to assess the child's ability to mime the use of familiar tools and to imitate meaningless sequences of movements. Results: All the children with Asperger's syndrome turned out to meet our criterion for a diagnosis of motor impairment, five of the six most severely motor impaired children in the whole study being from this group. Performance of the Asperger group was also slightly poorer on the Gesture Test. The profile of performance on each test was examined in detail but no evidence of group differences in the pattern of impairment was found. Conclusions: This study is consistent with others suggesting a high prevalence of clumsiness in Asperger's syndrome. Our findings also attest to the widespread prevalence of motor impairment in developmental disorders and the problems such co-morbidity poses for attempts to posit discrete and functionally coherent impairments underlying distinct syndromes.

The severity and nature of motor impairment in Asperger's syndrome: a comparison with specific developmental disorder of motor function.

This article considers the evidence for an imitative deficit in autism and for the possible role of deficiencies in the representation of actions. An argument is developed for the claim that the imitation problem is diagnostic of a basic information-processing rather than a social dysfunction. Reviews are offered of the empirical literature on gestural imitation in autism (and other developmental disorders) and the more anecdotal evidence for problems in the domain of action development in autism. An account that may help to integrate these areas is suggested, as are directions for future research.

Imitation and action in autism: A critical review.

This study was designed to investigate the gestural abilities of boys with learning disabilities. Eighteen boys with learning disabilities (who had a low veTbal-high performance vVISC profile) and 24 normal boys between the ages of 9 and 13 were given a gestural test that consisted of two sets of tasks, one requiring the symbolic representation of implement usage-on command and on imitation (representational items) and the other requiring the imitation of hand positions (nonrepresentational items). The items were classified according to place of action as either on-self or away-from-self. The results indicated that the learning-disabled subjects performed at a significantly lower level than the normal control group on the gestural representation tasks. There was a significant difference between instruction (command vs. imitation) and between place of action (self vs. away). Further, the learningdisabled subjects made significantly more spatial errors than the control subjects on imitation of gestural representation and nonrepresentation tasks. Results are discussed in terms of the need to investigate the various parameters of praxis.

Representational and Nonrepresentational Gestures in Boys with Learning Disabilities

This study was designed to evaluate the conceptual model proposed by Luria to identify different types of dyspraxia in learning-disabled (LD) children. The types of apraxia investigated were kinesthetic, optic-spatial, symbolic, and dynamic. In addition, the study explored differential performance on tasks of praxis in learning-disabled children as a function of their Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) IQ patterns. The subjects included 41 LD and 17 normal children ages 108 months to 153 months. They were administered The Praxis Test for Children, a compilation based on Luria's division of types of praxis with brain-damaged adults. Results indicated that the test differentiated between the LD and normal groups on the dynamic and optic-spatial tests. Data analyzed for the LD children with a significant WISC-R discrepancy between their Verbal IQ and Performance IQ profile yielded no difference between these two IQ groups. Results were discussed in terms of the need to investigate individual patterns of performance in the differentiation of dyspraxia.

Differentiation of praxis among children.

Three groups of learning disabled children, defined on the basis of their Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children profiles, and one control group of normal readers were asked to retain verbal material across distractor intervals ranging from zero to 18 seconds. None of the learning disabled groups (low verbal, high performance; high verbal, low performance; verbal equals performance) performed worse on this task than the normal controls. Furthermore, the older learning disabled children in the high-verbal, low-performance group actually retained somewhat more material than the normal control group. It was concluded that at least on this standard version of a short-term retention assessment task, learning disabled children are not at a significant disadvantage.

The Short-term Memory Ability of Children with Learning Disabilities:

A survey seeking information about programs and services for learning disabled (LD) students was sent to 703 graduate and professional schools in the United States. Respondents (n = 223) indicated that only 24% had developed a written plan which described services to LD students—a minimal requirement for compliance under Sec. 504. Most frequently, respondents reported offering “support-type” services, although such services were available in only 46% of the responding institutions. Specific services, program accommodations, and other program features are discussed. In addition to the apparent noncompliance with Sec. 504, the implications of the results of this survey are discussed.

A Survey of Programs and Services for Learning Disabled Students in Graduate and Professional Schools

The purpose of this study was to determine whether adolescent boys with learning disabilities demonstrate impairment in bilateral motor coordination when compared to normal boys. Forty-four boys with learning disabilities and 24 normal boys, 16 to 19 years old, were tested on a series of items requiring homolateral patterns of movement and a series of items requiring cross-diagonal patterns of movement. The boys with learning disabilities performed significantly more poorly than normal boys on both types of items. Both groups of boys performed significantly more poorly on crosss-diagonal items than homolateral items. Boys with learning disabilities had a significantly greater difference in scores betweeen homolateral and cross-diagonal items than normal boys. Results suggest that motor dysfunction in boys with learning disabilities persists into the late teenage years, and cross-diagonal patterns of movement appear to require greater degrees of skill than homolateral patterns of movement.

Bilateral Motor Coordination in Adolescents with and Without Learning Disabilites

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