Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)-based polymers demonstrate great potential for applications in flexible and wearable electronics but show low piezoelectric coefficients (e.g., −d33 < 30 pC N−1). The effective improvement for the piezoelectricity of PVDF is achieved by manipulating its semicrystalline structures. However, there is still a debate about which component is the primary contributor to piezoelectricity. Therefore, current methods to improve the piezoelectricity of PVDF can be classified into modulations of the amorphous phase, the crystalline region, and the crystalline–amorphous interface. Here, the basic principles and measurements of piezoelectric coefficients for soft polymers are first discussed. Then, three different categories of structural modulations are reviewed. In each category, the physical understanding and strategies to improve the piezoelectric performance of PVDF are discussed. In particular, the crucial role of the oriented amorphous fraction at the crystalline–amorphous interface in determining the piezoelectricity of PVDF is emphasized. At last, the future development of high performance piezoelectric polymers is outlooked. 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/adfm.202301302

Recent Progress on Structure Manipulation of Poly(vinylidene fluoride)‐Based Ferroelectric Polymers for Enhanced Piezoelectricity and Applications

Spatially Confined MXene/PVDF Nanofiber Piezoelectric Electronics

Implantable biomedical devices (IBDs) have garnered wide-scale attention in recent years due to their enormous contribution to the biomedical sector. However, an uninterrupted and reliable power source has consistently been the primary barrier for IBDs, which is greatly alleviated by batteries. The widespread application of battery-powered IBDs is hindered by several limitations, including bulkiness, limited capacity and shelf-life, and expenditure associated with surgery-based battery recharge/replacement. To address these challenges, state-of-the-art self-powering technologies have emerged, including implantable piezoelectric nanogenerators (iPENGs) and implantable triboelectric nanogenerators (iTENGs). These technologies enable IBDs to operate autonomously by harnessing the minute mechanical movements of internal organs, such as heartbeat, respiration, blood circulation, muscle contraction/relaxation, and lung vibration. This review focuses on the recent advancements in iTENGs and iPENGs for the development of self-powered IBDs with a wide range of applications, including energy harvesting from biomechanical and ultrasound sources and energy storage using batteries and capacitors. This study also explores the extensive sensing applications of IBDs in various areas including cardiac, gastrointestinal, bladder, and ligament-strain monitoring. Finally, therapeutic applications of IBDs, such as nerve stimulation, bone stimulation, cartilage therapy, tissue regeneration, muscle stimulation, drug delivery, and diabetes management are discussed. 

Piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators: promising technologies for self-powered implantable biomedical devices

In recent years, the biochemical and biological research areas have shown great interest in a smart wearable sensor because of its increasing prevalence and high potential to monitor human health in a non-invasive manner by continuous screening of biomarkers dispersed throughout the biological analytes, as well as real-time diagnostic tools and time-sensitive information compared to conventional hospital-centered system. These smart wearable sensors offer an innovative option for evaluating and investigating human health by incorporating a portion of recent advances in technology and engineering that can enhance real-time point-of-care-testing capabilities. Smart wearable sensors have emerged progressively with a mixture of multiplexed biosensing, microfluidic sampling, and data acquisition systems incorporated with flexible substrate and bodily attachments for enhanced wearability, portability, and reliability. There is a good chance that smart wearable sensors will be relevant to the early detection and diagnosis of disease management and control. Therefore, pioneering smart wearable sensors into reality seems extremely promising despite possible challenges in this cutting-edge technology for a better future in the healthcare domain. This review presents critical viewpoints on recent developments in wearable sensors in the upcoming smart digital health monitoring in real-time scenarios. In addition, there have been proactive discussions in recent years on materials selection, design optimization, efficient fabrication tools, and data processing units, as well as their continuous monitoring and tracking strategy with system-level integration such as internet-of-things, cyber-physical systems, and machine learning algorithms. 

Recent advances in smart wearable sensors for continuous human health monitoring.

Impact of PVDF and its copolymer-based nanocomposites for flexible and wearable energy harvesters

Robust superhydrophobic wearable piezoelectric nanogenerators for self-powered body motion sensors

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Robust superhydrophobic wearable piezoelectric nanogenerators for self-powered body motion sensors