1. Pests, pesticides and biological control 2. Natural enemies 3. Biological control ecology 4. Early naturalists and experiments 5. The first foreign explorers 6. Modern foreign exploration and successes 7. Maximising biological control through research 8. Utilization by the public 9. Other biological methods 10. Escape from the pesticide dilemma.

Biological Control by Natural Enemies

The agricultural production in the Neotropical region is highly affected by the attack of pests and diseases. Due to the overuse of pesticides, sustainable methods of control are in demand, such as biological control. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) considered the use of Biological control as a method to suppress the population of pests in several field agricultural systems and in protected crops systems. Biological control is gener ally appreciated today as an important component of IPM, and the demand for it is likely to spread as the IPM programs develop worldwide. The tropics present an important region for the application of biological control. The Neotropical region is characterized by its rich biodiversity, resulting in a wide range of natural enemies of pests represented by parasitoids, predators, and pathogens. Parasitoids are the natural enemies most used around the world for biological control. In this chapter, we present biological control programs using parasitoids established in the Neotropical region to control key pests of economic importance. Agricultural practices that maintain and enhance the action of natural enemies in crops will be reviewed, as the challenges and poten tial for the establishment of Biological Control programs using parasitoids in the Neotropical region..

/pdf/use-of-parasitoids-as-a-biocontrol-agent-in-the-neotropical-3i1i4omzn3.pdf

Use of Parasitoids as a Biocontrol Agent in the Neotropical Region: Challenges and Potential

Recently, Indian cotton belt experienced a devastating outbreak of Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley. Natural enemy complex associated with P. solenopsis was explored by conducting extensive field surveys coupled with laboratory screening of samples collected from various localities across the country. A total of seventeen parasitoids inclusive of hyperparasitoids were identified. An encyrtid, Aenasius bambawalei Hayat, was found predominantly on P. solenopsis . Promuscidea unfasciativentris Girault predominated the hyperparasitic fauna. Interestingly, Aphanogmus sp. and Anastatus sp. were recorded for the first time on P. solenopsis . Additionally, eight species of Coccinellidae and two species of Chrysopidae were recovered as important predators.

/pdf/natural-enemy-complex-associated-with-the-mealybug-dx5cgrqqrr.pdf

Natural Enemy Complex Associated with the Mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Infesting Different Host Plants in India

Summary Reproductive modes and daily fecundity of Aenasius bambawalei Hayat (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a parasitoid of Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), were elucidated in this experiment. Aenasius bambawale reproduced mainly by gamogenesis and occasionally by arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. Aenasius bambawalei females allocated far more energy sources to their own survival than to reproduction during the mid and late portions of the ovipositional period. Therefore, newly emerged adult parasitoids should be chosen for mass rearing and for use in the biological control of P. solenopsis.

https://bioone.org/journals/Florida-Entomologist/volume-98/issue-1/024.098.0158/Reproductive-Modes-and-Daily-Fecundity-of-Aenasius-bambawalei-Hymenoptera/10.1653/024.098.0158.pdf

Reproductive Modes and Daily Fecundity of Aenasius bambawalei (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a Parasitoid of Phenacoccus solenopsis (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae): a threat to Indian farming.

Solenopsis mealybug, ( Phenacoccus solenopsis ) infests cotton at Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu. During the surveys carried out during 2008-10, coccinellids Scymnus nubilus Mulsant, Hyperaspis maindroni Sicard, green lacewing, spiders, Aenasius bambawalei Hayat, Homalotylus eytelwenii Ratzeburg (Encyrtidae) Promuscidea unfasciativentris Girault and Coccophagus sp. (Aphelinidae) were recorded. The per cent emergence of S. nubilus was highest (68%) during second week of February and lowest (6%) during last week of November. The highest percentage (18%) of H. maindroni was recorded during second week of February and lowest (2%) during third week of March. The highest parasitisation (76%) by A. bambawalei was recorded during last week of February whereas it was lowest (8%) during last week of December. Similarly, the highest parasitisation (28%) by P. unfasciativentris was recorded during third week of February whereas it was lowest (2%) during third week of March. But the percent parasitized mealybug by Coccophagus sp . was very lower than others. A. bambawalei and P. unfasciativentris were most common parasitoids on mealybug P. solenopsis in cotton.

/pdf/predators-and-parasitoids-of-cotton-mealybug-phenacoccus-1kl7y9qxtu.pdf

Predators and parasitoids of cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu.

(Williams and Granara de Willink) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is native to Mexico and Central America (Miller et al., 1999) and was first described in 1992 (Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992). It is a small hemipteran found to attack several genera of host plants. First report of its occurrence was in 1992 and there after it has spread to more than 15 countries. The mealybug has never gained the status of a serious pest in its native Mexico and or Central America, probably, due to the presence of an endemic natural enemy complex. But, in places where they got introduced without their native natural enemies, it potentially posses a great threat to numerous agricultural produce/products, if uncontrolled. It is a polyphagous pest infesting more than 60 species of economically important host plants (Tanwar et al., 2010). Classical biological control was identified as an important component in the management of P. marginatus (Walkar et al., 2006) and currently Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff (Encyritidea) is considered as one of the efficient parasitoids for the suppression of Papaya mealybug in its native range (Muniappan et al ., 2006; Amirasercare et al., 2009). It was imported from the USDA  APHIS parasitoid rearing facility at Puerto Rico on July, 15th, 2010 (Rabindra and Shylesha, 2011) and the cultures were maintained in the quarantine laboratory of National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII), Bengaluru. The papaya mealybug has become serious on tapioca in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu. The damage on tapioca was found to be very extensive especially during 2009 onwards. In Srilanka, the parasitoid A. papayae, resulted in complete control of the mealybug within a year of release of the parasitoids. Keeping in view of the above facts, the present study was planned to manage the papaya mealybug in tapioca through the use of exotic parasitoid A. papayae in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu. The present study was carried out in the farmers fields of Perambalur district during 2010-2011 and 2011-2012. Hundred fields of one acre each infested by mealybug were selected for the study.

Classical biological control of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in tapioca by an encyrtide parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae in Perambalur District of Tamilnadu, India

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Predators and parasitoids of cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu.

Classical biological control of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in tapioca by an encyrtide parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae in Perambalur District of Tamilnadu, India