Background Research using the parental bonding instrument (PBI) has suggested that lack of parental care and/or overprotection may be important risk factors for adult mental disorders. Much of this research, however, has relied on clinical populations with one or two disorders, or has used highly select community samples. Method The association between parenting experiences and the occurrence of 13 common mental disorders in adulthood was evaluated in the US National Comorbidity Survey (N = 5877). The effect of sociodemographic variables (age, education, income) was statistically controlled and the effects of six parenting variables (maternal and paternal care, overprotection and authoritarianism) were examined simultaneously. The effects in men and women were examined separately. Results Lack of care was the parenting variable most consistently associated with adult psychopathology. Parenting experiences with one's mother were more consistently associated with adult mental disorders. In general the impact of parenting was diagnostically non-specific. However, there appeared to be some unique effects for externalizing disorders (substance use disorders and antisocial personality disorder) in males; paternal overprotection and authoritarianism conferred a reduced risk of externalizing disorders in adult males. The overall impact of parenting as assessed by the PBI was modest, accounting for about 1 to 5 % of the variance in the occurrence of adult mental disorders. Conclusion Parenting experiences, particularly lack of care, are potentially causally related in a non-specific manner to a wide variety of forms of adult psychopathology in both men and women. The overall magnitude of the effect is small but statistically significant in a nationally representative US sample.

Parental bonding and adult psychopathology: results from the US National Comorbidity Survey.

In this article, we review empirical research on the role of individuals’ parenting and maltreatment histories as developmental antecedents for symptoms and diagnosable episodes of unipolar and bipolar spectrum disorders. Our review is focused on the following three overarching questions: (1) Do negative parenting and a history of maltreatment contribute risk to symptoms or diagnosable episodes of unipolar and bipolar disorders? (2) Are the associations of negative parenting and maltreatment histories with bipolar disorders similar to those for unipolar depression? and (3) Are the associations between negative parenting and maltreatment histories and unipolar and bipolar symptoms or disorders mediated by cognitive vulnerability to depression? We begin by discussing the methodological requirements for demonstrating a psychosocial risk factor and the methodological issues that plague the parenting and maltreatment literatures. Next, we review the extant studies on the role of parenting histories in unipolar and bipolar disorders. We consider the specificity and possible moderators of the parenting–mood disorder relationship, as well as cognitive vulnerability to depression as a mediator of this relationship. Then, we review studies on the association of maltreatment histories with unipolar and bipolar disorders and the role of cognitive vulnerability to depression as a mediator of this association. We conclude with an assessment of the state of the parenting and maltreatment literatures in unipolar and bipolar disorder with regard to our guiding questions.

Role of Parenting and Maltreatment Histories in Unipolar and Bipolar Mood Disorders: Mediation by Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression.

Background Avoidance coping (e.g. sealing over) is common in people recovering from psychosis, but it is not understood why some individuals ‘ seal over’.

Aims We examined the hypothesis that individuals who ‘seal over’ do not have the personal resilience to withstand this major life event.

Method Fifty participants were interviewed during an acute episode of psychosis and reassessed at 3-month and 6-month follow-up. Measures included psychotic symptoms, recovery style, service engagement, parental and adult attachment and self-evaluative beliefs.

Results Sealing-over recovery styles are associated with negative early childhood experience, insecure adult attachment, negative self-evaluative beliefs and insecure identity. Insecure adult attachment was associated with less engagement with services.

Conclusions Sealing over was associated with multiple signs of low personal resilience in adapting to psychosis.

/pdf/adapting-to-the-challenge-of-psychosis-personal-resilience-5cetrpx0n1.pdf

Adapting to the challenge of psychosis: personal resilience and the use of sealing-over (avoidant) coping strategies

The search for determinants of chronic depression: a review of six factors

Despite the central role accorded to cognitive style in mediating the relationship between negative parenting and the development of anxiety and depression, few studies have empirically examined this relationship. Using a clinical sample, this study examined the relationship between early experiences with low care, increased control, abuse and neglect, and symptoms of anxiety and depression, via the mediating effects of cognitive style. It was found that individuals who rate their parents as being more abusive and neglectful reported a greater degree of depression and that this relationship was mediated by dysfunctional cognitive style. These findings contribute to the growing literature by providing support for the role of cognitions in mediating the link between negative parenting and psychopathology.

The Relationship Between Parenting Style, Cognitive Style, and Anxiety and Depression: Does Increased Early Adversity Influence Symptom Severity Through the Mediating Role of Cognitive Style?

Background. We examined a group of subjects at familial risk of depression and explored the relationship between the perceptions of parents and a history of depression. We also investigated: (a) whether any difference in perceived parenting found between those with and without a past history of depression was an artefact of the depression; and (b) whether the relationship between parenting and depression was explained by neuroticism.Method. We took a sample of first-degree relatives selected from a family study in depression and subdivided them by their history of mental illness on the SADS-L, into those: (a) without a history of mental illness (N=43); and (b) those who had fully recovered from an episode of RDC major depression (N=34). We compared the perceptions of parenting, as measured by the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), in these two groups having adjusted for the effect of neuroticism and subsyndromal depressive symptoms. We also had informants report on parenting of their siblings, the latter being subdivided into those with and without a past history of depression.Results. Relatives with a past history of depression showed lower care scores for both mother and father combined compared with the never ill relatives. The presence of a history of depression was associated with a non-significant reduction in the self-report care scores compared to the siblings report. Vulnerable personality (as measured by high neuroticism) and low perceived care were both found to exert independent effects in discriminating between the scores of relatives with and without a history of depression and there was no interaction between them.Conclusion. This study confirmed that low perceived parental care was associated with a past history of depression, that it was not entirely an artefact of having been depressed, and suggested that this association was partially independent of neuroticism.

Quality of parenting and vulnerability to depression: Results from a family study

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Quality of parenting and vulnerability to depression: Results from a family study