Despite the increasing number of publications dealing with solid-state (substrate) fermentation (SSF) it is very difficult to draw general conclusion from the data presented This is due to the lack of proper standardisation that would allow objective comparison with other processes Research work has so far focused on the general applicability of SSF for the production of enzymes, metabolites and spores, in that many different solid substrates (agricultural waste) have been combined with many different fungi and the productivity of each fermentation reported On a gram bench-scale SSF appears to be superior to submerged fermentation technology (SmF) in several aspects However, SSF up-scaling, necessary for use on an industrial scale, raises severe engineering problems due to the build-up of temperature, pH, O2, substrate and moisture gradients Hence, most published reviews also focus on progress towards industrial engineering The role of the physiological and genetic properties of the microorganisms used during growth on solid substrates compared with aqueous solutions has so far been all but neglected, despite the fact that it may be the microbiology that makes SSF advantageous against the SmF biotechnology This review will focus on research work allowing comparison of the specific biological particulars of enzyme, metabolite and/or spore production in SSF and in SmF In these respects, SSF appears to possess several biotechnological advantages, though at present on a laboratory scale only, such as higher fermentation productivity, higher end-concentration of products, higher product stability, lower catabolic repression, cultivation of microorganisms specialized for water-insoluble substrates or mixed cultivation of various fungi, and last but not least, lower demand on sterility due to the low water activity used in SSF

Biotechnological advantages of laboratory-scale solid-state fermentation with fungi.

Th e eff ect of orange peel concentration, HCl concentration, incubation time and temperature, and inoculum size on the spore count and activity of polygalacturonase (PG) enzyme produced from Aspergillus sojae M3 by solid- state fermentation was screened using 2 k factorial design. Orange peel and HCl concentrations and incubation time were signifi cant factors aff ecting the responses. Optimum conditions favoring both PG and spore production from Aspergillus sojae M3 were determined as 2% orange peel and 50 mM HCl concentrations at 22 °C and 4.3 days of incubation. An overlay plot was constructed for use as a practical chart for production of high enzyme activity (>35.0 U/g substrate) and spore count (9.0 × 10 8 to 2.0 × 10 9 spore/mL) by superimposing the contours of PG activity and spore count responses. Th e accuracy and reliability of the constructed models on the responses was validated with the maximum calculated error rate between the predicted and actual activities at 14.1% and 22.4%, respectively.

https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/biology/issues/biy-12-36-4/biy-36-4-4-1104-23.pdf

Optimization of the process parameters for the utilization of orange peel to produce polygalacturonase by solid-state fermentation from an Aspergillus sojae mutant strain

When Penicillium roquefortii is grown on two kinds of buckwheat, exhibiting a low [0.85 g water/g dry matter (DM), buckwheat A] and a high [1.5 g water/g initial dry matter (IDM), buckwheat B] water content, a marked difference in the mode of development of the fungus is observed. Material balances for buckwheat A show that growth does not stop because of nutrient exhaustion. Analysis of water balance shows that active growth proceeds with a permanent limitation by the turgor potential which disappears when the water activity of the substrate is close to 0.96, thus arresting growth. This limitation causes intensive water excretion from the system due to the lowering of the water activity of the substrate. The water content of the mycelium thus decreases from 79% at the beginning of the cultivation to 74% when the growth stops. This is linked to a substantial oxidative metabolism and a high sporulation efficiency, close to 0.85. The spores obtained have a low dry weight and a reduced nitrogen content. In the case of buckwheat B, the active growth is shown to stop because of available mineral nitrogen depletion. No significant decrease in the water activity of the substrate is found during the protein synthesis, and the turgor potential remains high at the end of this period. Culture proceeds with new wall synthesis; the sporulation efficiency remains high and the spores obtained exhibit a high dry weight and a high nitrogen content. The bioenergetic balances show that the P/O ratio varies with the kind of substrate used; its value is close to 1.56 for the low water medium and to 2.21 for the high one. The ATP yield Z is always close to 1, and fungal development occurs with limitations of both anabolism and catabolism on buckwheat B and only of anabolism and catabolism on buckwheat B and only of anabolism on buckwheat A.

Characterization of the growth and sporulation behavior of Penicillium roquefortii in solid substrate fermentation by material and bioenergetic balances.

Aims: To exploit conidiospores of Aspergillus niger as a vector for glucose oxidase extraction from solid media, and their direct use as biocatalyst in the bioconversion of glucose to gluconic acid. Methods and Results: Spores of A. niger (200 h old) were shown to fully retain all the glucose oxidase synthesized by the mycelium during solid-state fermentation (SSF). They acted as catalyst and carried out the bioconversion reaction effectively, provided they were permeabilized by freezing and thawing. Glucose oxidase activity was found retained in the spores even after repeated washings. Average rate of reaction was 1AE 5gl )1 h )1 with 102 g l )1 of gluconic acid produced out of 100 g l )1 glucose consumed after approx. 100 h reaction, which corresponded to a molar yield close to 93%. These results were obtained with permeabilized spores in the presence of a germination inhibitor, sodium azide. Conclusions: Spores of A. niger served as efficient catalyst in the model bioconversion reaction after permeabilization. Significance and Impact of the Study: To our knowledge, this is the first detailed study on the ability of A. niger spores to act as reservoir of enzyme synthesized during SSF without its release into solid media. Use of this material served as an innovative concept for enzyme extraction and purification from a solid medium. Moreover, this approach could compete efficiently with the conventional use of mycelial form of the fungus in gluconic acid production.

https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02051.x

Spores of Aspergillus niger as reservoir of glucose oxidase synthesized during solid-state fermentation and their use as catalyst in gluconic acid production

Permeabilization and inhibition of the germination of spores of Aspergillus niger for gluconic acid production from glucose.

Strategies for spore production by Penicillium roquefortii using solid state fermentation techniques.

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Strategies for spore production by Penicillium roquefortii using solid state fermentation techniques.