The synthesis, properties and applications of polypyrrole (PPy), a representative of conducting polymers, are reviewed. Chemical and electrochemical methods for the preparation of PPy and PPy films and the effect of the reaction conditions on the properties of the polymer produced are discussed. The mechanisms of electrochemical polymerisation of pyrrole are compared. The physicomechanical properties of the polymer, its morphology and structure are discussed. The mechanism of charge transfer in PPy is considered within the framework of the model of quasi-equilibrium concentrations of polarons and bipolarons. The methods for modification of the electrochemical performance of PPy are reviewed, in particular, synthesis of PPy from pyrrole derivatives with the appropriate electroactive groups and introduction in the PPy of electroactive dopant anions and the effect of those on the electrochemical performance of PPy films are considered. Examples of the use of PPy are given and the prospects for its application in various areas are discussed. The bibliography includes 254 references.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1070/RC1997v066n05ABEH000261/pdf

Polypyrrole : a conducting polymer; its synthesis, properties and applications

Metallophthalocyanine-based molecular materials as catalysts for electrochemical reactions

Conducting polymers (electroactive conjugated polymers, ECPs) have emerged as one of the most promising transducers for chemical sensors. This is related to the unique electrical, electrochemical and optical properties of conjugated polymers that can be used to convert chemical information (concentration, activity, partial pressure) into electrical or optical signals in the solid state. Application of conjugated polymers in potentiometric ion sensors (ion-selective electrodes, ISEs) is reviewed.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/elan.200390042

Potentiometric Ion Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers

The construction and the properties of conducting-polymer based amperometric enzyme electrodes are reviewed. The main aim is to focus on the properties of conducting polymer films which are important for the construction of amperometric enzyme electrodes. Additionally, the review is focused on electron-transfer pathways between conducting-polymer integrated immobilized enzyme molecules and the modified electrode using free-diffusing redox mediators as well as direct electron transfer via the conducting-polymer wires. Possible future applications using microstructured conducting-polymer films will be discussed.

Conducting polymer based amperometric enzyme electrodes

Phthalocyanine-based Langmuir-Blodgett films as chemical sensors.

Redox voltammetry provides a means to distinguish between poly(pyrroles) that appear similar in many other respects. Under a consistent set of experimental conditions, poly(pyrroles) doped with various small mobile anions (exemplified by tetrafluoroborate, BF4–) gave broad reduction waves at facile potentials, whereas poly(pyrroles) doped with several larger and less-mobile anions (exemplified by p-toluenesulfonate, PTS) gave strikingly sharp reduction waves at markedly more cathodic potentials. This distinction appears intrinsic to the different materials and alteration of polymer preparation conditions failed to convert BF4–-type behaviour to PTS-type behaviour. In contrast, the reverse switch was achieved, but only under the extreme preparation conditions of low monomer concentration which yielded poor quality film morphology. However, benzenesulfonate-doped poly(pyrrole) was more readily switched between the two types of redox behaviour depending on the polymerization solvent, this result offering opportunity for manipulation of redox properties, with implications for redox-based applications of these materials.

Characterization of poly(pyrroles) by cyclic voltammetry

Functional dopants in conducting polymers

Competitive doping in polypyrrole

Electrochemical oxidation and reduction on polypyrrole electrodes

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Characterization of poly(pyrroles) by cyclic voltammetry

Functional dopants in conducting polymers

Competitive doping in polypyrrole

Electrochemical oxidation and reduction on polypyrrole electrodes