We present the deepest 100 to 500 μm far-infrared observations obtained with the Herschel Space Observatory as part of the GOODS-Herschel key program, and examine the infrared (IR) 3–500 μm spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of galaxies at 0 < z < 2.5, supplemented by a local reference sample from IRAS, ISO, Spitzer, and AKARI data. We determine the projected star formation densities of local galaxies from their radio and mid-IR continuum sizes.
We find that the ratio of total IR luminosity to rest-frame 8 μm luminosity, IR8 (≡ L_(IR)^(tot)/L_8), follows a Gaussian distribution centered on IR8 = 4 (σ = 1.6) and defines an IR main sequence for star-forming galaxies independent of redshift and luminosity. Outliers from this main sequence produce a tail skewed toward higher values of IR8. This minority population (  3 × 10^(10) L_⊙ kpc^(-2)) and a high specific star formation rate (i.e., starbursts). The rest-frame, UV-2700 A size of these distant starbursts is typically half that of main sequence galaxies, supporting the correlation between star formation density and starburst activity that is measured for the local sample.
Locally, luminous and ultraluminous IR galaxies, (U)LIRGs (L_(IR)^(tot)≥ 10^(11) L_☉), are systematically in the starburst mode, whereas most distant (U)LIRGs form stars in the “normal” main sequence mode. This confusion between two modes of star formation is the cause of the so-called “mid-IR excess” population of galaxies found at z > 1.5 by previous studies. Main sequence galaxies have strong polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission line features, a broad far-IR bump resulting from a combination of dust temperatures (T_(dust) ~ 15–50 K), and an effective T_(dust)  ~ 31 K, as derived from the peak wavelength of their infrared SED. Galaxies in the starburst regime instead exhibit weak PAH equivalent widths and a sharper far-IR bump with an effective T_(dust)~ 40 K. Finally, we present evidence that the mid-to-far IR emission of X-ray active galactic nuclei (AGN) is predominantly produced by star formation and that candidate dusty AGNs with a power-law emission in the mid-IR systematically occur in compact, dusty starbursts. After correcting for the effect of starbursts on IR8, we identify new candidates for extremely obscured AGNs.

https://works.bepress.com/mauro_giavalisco/24/download/

GOODS–Herschel: an infrared main sequence for star-forming galaxies

Far-infrared and submillimeter wavelength surveys have now established the important role of dusty, star-forming galaxies (DSFGs) in the assembly of stellar mass and the evolution of massive galaxies in the Universe. The brightest of these galaxies have infrared luminosities in excess of 10$^{13}$ L$_{\odot}$ with implied star-formation rates of thousands of solar masses per year. They represent the most intense starbursts in the Universe, yet many are completely optically obscured. Their easy detection at submm wavelengths is due to dust heated by ultraviolet radiation of newly forming stars. When summed up, all of the dusty, star-forming galaxies in the Universe produce an infrared radiation field that has an equal energy density as the direct starlight emission from all galaxies visible at ultraviolet and optical wavelengths. The bulk of this infrared extragalactic background light emanates from galaxies as diverse as gas-rich disks to mergers of intense starbursting galaxies. Major advances in far-infrared instrumentation in recent years, both space-based and ground-based, has led to the detection of nearly a million DSFGs, yet our understanding of the underlying astrophysics that govern the start and end of the dusty starburst phase is still in nascent stage. This review is aimed at summarizing the current status of DSFG studies, focusing especially on the detailed characterization of the best-understood subset (submillimeter galaxies, who were summarized in the last review of this field over a decade ago, Blain et al., 2002), but also the selection and characterization of more recently discovered DSFG populations. We review DSFG population statistics, their physical properties including dust, gas and stellar contents, their environments, and current theoretical models related to the formation and evolution of these galaxies.

Dusty Star-Forming Galaxies at High Redshift

Galactic winds are a prime suspect for the metal enrichment of the intergalactic medium (IGM) and may have a strong influence on the chemical evolution of galaxies and the nature of QSO absorption-line systems. We use a sample of 1406 galaxy spectra at z ~ 1.4 from the DEEP2 redshift survey to show that blueshifted Mg IYI ?? 2796, 2803 absorption is ubiquitous in star-forming galaxies at this epoch. This is the first detection of frequent outflowing galactic winds at z ~ 1. The presence and depth of absorption are independent of active galactic nuclei spectral signatures or galaxy morphology; major mergers are not a prerequisite for driving a galactic wind from massive galaxies. Outflows are found in co-added spectra of galaxies spanning a range of 30 times in stellar mass and 10 times in star formation rate (SFR), calibrated from K-band and from the Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer IR fluxes. The outflows have column densities of order NH ~ 1020 cm-2 and characteristic velocities of ~?300-500?km?s?1, with absorption seen out to 1000?km?s?1 in the most massive, highest SFR galaxies. The velocities suggest that the outflowing gas can escape into the IGM and that massive galaxies can produce cosmologically and chemically significant outflows. Both the Mg II equivalent width and the outflow velocity are larger for galaxies of higher stellar mass and SFR, with V wind ~ SFR0.3, similar to the scaling in low redshift IR-luminous galaxies. The high frequency of outflows in the star-forming galaxy population at z ~ 1 indicates that galactic winds occur in the progenitors of massive spirals as well as those of ellipticals. The increase of outflow velocity with mass and SFR constrains theoretical models of galaxy evolution that include feedback from galactic winds, and may favor momentum-driven models for the wind physics.

pdf/ubiquitous-outflows-in-deep2-spectra-of-star-forming-4jrbxmk5hj.pdf

UBIQUITOUS OUTFLOWS IN DEEP2 SPECTRA OF STAR-FORMING GALAXIES AT z = 1.4

Dusty Star Forming Galaxies at High Redshift

We use a sample of 90 spectroscopically confirmed Lyman break galaxies with Hα measurements and Spitzer MIPS 24 μm observations to constrain the relationship between rest-frame 8 μm luminosity (L_8) and star formation rate (SFR) for L* galaxies at z ~ 2. We find a tight correlation with 0.24 dex scatter between L_8 and Hα luminosity/SFR for z ~ 2 galaxies with 10^(10) L_☉ ≲ L_(IR) ≲ 10^(12) L_☉. Employing this relationship with a larger sample of 392 galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts, we find that the UV slope β can be used to recover the dust attenuation of the vast majority of moderately luminous L* galaxies at z ~ 2 to within a 0.4 dex scatter using the local correlation. Separately, young galaxies with ages ≲100 Myr appear to be less dusty than their UV slopes would imply based on the local trend and may follow an extinction curve that is steeper than what is typically assumed. Consequently, very young galaxies at high redshift may be significantly less dusty than inferred previously. Our results provide the first direct evidence, independent of the UV slope, for a correlation between UV and bolometric luminosity (L_(bol)) at high redshift, in the sense that UV-faint galaxies are on average less infrared and less bolometrically luminous than their UV-bright counterparts. The L_(bol)-L_(UV) relation indicates that as the SFR increases, L_(UV) turns over (or "saturates") around the value of L* at z ~ 2, implying that dust obscuration may be largely responsible for modulating the bright end of the UV luminosity function. Finally, dust attenuation is found to correlate with oxygen abundance at z ~ 2. Accounting for systematic differences in local and high-redshift metallicity calibrations, we find that L* galaxies at z ~ 2, while at least an order of magnitude more bolometrically luminous, exhibit ratios of metals to dust that are similar to those of local starbursts. This result is expected if high-redshift galaxies are forming their stars in a less metal-rich environment compared to local galaxies of the same luminosity, thus naturally leading to a redshift evolution in both the bolometric luminosity-metallicity and bolometric luminosity-obscuration relations.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/712/2/1070/pdf

DUST OBSCURATION AND METALLICITY AT HIGH REDSHIFT: NEW INFERENCES FROM UV, Hα, AND 8 μm OBSERVATIONS OF z ∼ 2 STAR-FORMING GALAXIES*

We present Spitzer/IRS mid-infrared spectra for 15 gravitationally lensed, 24 micron--selected galaxies, and combine the results with 4 additional very faint galaxies with IRS spectra in the literature. The median intrinsic 24 micron flux density of the sample is 130 microJy, enabling a systematic survey of the spectral properties of the very faint 24 micron sources that dominate the number counts of Spitzer cosmological surveys. Six of the 19 galaxy spectra (32%) show the strong mid-IR continuua expected of AGN; X-ray detections confirm the presence of AGN in three of these cases, and reveal AGNs in two other galaxies. These results suggest that nuclear accretion may contribute more flux to faint 24 micron--selected samples than previously assumed. Almost all the spectra show some aromatic (PAH) emission features; the measured aromatic flux ratios do not show evolution from z=0. In particular, the high S/N mid-IR spectrum of SMM J163554.2+661225 agrees remarkably well with low--redshift, lower--luminosity templates. We compare the rest-frame 8 micron and total infrared luminosities of star--forming galaxies, and find that the behavior of this ratio with total IR luminosity has evolved modestly from z=2 to z=0. Since the high aromatic--to--continuum flux ratios in these galaxies rule out a dominant contribution by AGN, this finding implies systematic evolution in the structure and/or metallicity of infrared sources with redshift. It also has implications for the estimates of star forming rates inferred from 24 micron measurements, in the sense that at z ~2, a given observed frame 24 micron luminosity corresponds to a lower bolometric luminosity than would be inferred from low-redshift templates of similar luminosity at the corresponding rest wavelength.

/pdf/mid-infrared-spectroscopy-of-lensed-galaxies-at-1-z-3-the-1he1cjb7ax.pdf

Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy of Lensed Galaxies at 1<z<3: The Nature of Sources Near the MIPS Confusion Limit

We present Spitzer IRS mid-infrared spectra for 15 gravitationally lensed, 24 μm-selected galaxies, and combine the results with four additional very faint galaxies with IRS spectra in the literature. The median intrinsic 24 μm flux density of the sample is 130 μJy, enabling a systematic survey of the spectral properties of the very faint 24 μm sources that dominate the number counts of Spitzer cosmological surveys. Six of the 19 galaxy spectra (32%) show the strong mid-IR continuua expected of AGNs; X-ray detections confirm the presence of AGNs in three of these cases, and reveal AGNs in two other galaxies. These results suggest that nuclear accretion may contribute more flux to faint 24 μm-selected samples than previously assumed. Almost all the spectra show some aromatic (PAH) emission features; the measured aromatic flux ratios do not show evolution from z = 0. In particular, the high signal-to-noise mid-IR spectrum of SMM J163554.2+661225 agrees remarkably well with low-redshift, lower luminosity templates. We compare the rest-frame 8 μm and total infrared luminosities of star-forming galaxies, and find that the behavior of this ratio with total IR luminosity has evolved modestly from z = 2 to z = 0. Since the high aromatic-to-continuum flux ratios in these galaxies rule out a dominant contribution by AGNs, this finding implies systematic evolution in the structure and/or metallicity of infrared sources with redshift. It also has implications for the estimates of star-forming rates inferred from 24 μm measurements, in the sense that at z ~ 2, a given observed frame 24 μm luminosity corresponds to a lower bolometric luminosity than would be inferred from low-redshift templates of similar luminosity at the corresponding rest wavelength.

/pdf/mid-infrared-spectroscopy-of-lensed-galaxies-at-1-z-3-the-kti3o9lvu1.pdf

Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy of Lensed Galaxies at 1 < z < 3: The Nature of Sources Near the MIPS Confusion Limit

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Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy of Lensed Galaxies at 1<z<3: The Nature of Sources Near the MIPS Confusion Limit

Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy of Lensed Galaxies at 1 < z < 3: The Nature of Sources Near the MIPS Confusion Limit