Access to electric power supply has always had a significant role in promoting improvements in all the society sectors, nevertheless nowadays 1.3 billion of people still do not have electricity access. Moreover, most of them live in rural areas of developing countries which are often isolated, scattered populated and characterized by poor infrastructure and services. In this situation, the growing consideration towards the target of universal access to energy has emphasized the role of rural electrification, and off-grid small-scale generation represents one of the most appropriate options. As a consequence, the scientific literature has devoted attention to this topic with a large number of papers. In this frame, the present analysis focuses on off-grid systems for rural electrification and provides a general framework to this topic and an analytical review of the literature. The work is based on the review of more than 350 papers mainly published from 2000 to 2014 within selected journals, and it is organized in two sections. In the first one we describe the role of small-scale generation systems throughout the process of electrification, the main features of rural areas and their typical energy uses, and we propose a new comprehensive taxonomy for off-grid systems for rural electrification. In the second one we develop an extensive review of the selected literature according to the proposed classification and to five main research areas: Technology: layout and components; Models and methods for simulation and sizing; Techno-economic feasibility analyses and sustainability analyses; Case studies analyses; Policy analyses. The work results in a comprehensive review which organizes and capitalizes the main fundamentals of the addressed topic and provides elements to get acquainted with the literature.

Off-grid systems for rural electrification in developing countries: Definitions, classification and a comprehensive literature review

Optimal sizing of a hybrid grid-connected photovoltaic and wind power system

Optimization of a hybrid system for solar-wind-based water desalination by reverse osmosis: Comparison of approaches

Universal electricity access is an important development objective, and the focus of a number of key global UN initiatives. While robust electricity planning is widely believed to be a prerequisite for effective electrification, to date, no comprehensive overview of electricity planning research has been undertaken on sub-Saharan Africa, the world region with the lowest access rates. This paper reviews quantitative and qualitative electricity planning and related implementation research, considering each of the 49 sub-Saharan African countries, the four regional power pools and the sub-continent as a whole. Applying a broad understanding of electricity planning and a practical limit of 20 reviewed articles per country and region, 306 relevant peer-reviewed journal articles are included in this review. A general classification scheme is introduced that classifies the planning literature along the addressed value chain depth, number of different analysed criteria and number of evaluated decision alternatives. The literature is found to be strongly clustered in a few countries, with less than 5 identified relevant articles in 36 of the 49 countries. The total amount of articles per year is clearly increasing over time, addressing technology choice, operation, distribution and implementation analyses. Although including different high-level criteria in analysing electricity systems is common, the literature is only starting to use formalised multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) tools. The review indicates that 63% of relevant articles favour renewable energy technologies for their given problems. Frequently mentioned success factors for electrification in sub-Saharan Africa include adequate policy design, sufficient finance and favourable political conditions. While considerable regional and methodological literature gaps are apparent, the literature in this review identifies a rich and fruitful ground for future research to fill these gaps.

Electricity planning and implementation in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review.

Recently, with the stringent environmental regulations and shortage fossil-fuel reserve, power generation based on renewable energy sources is seen as a promising solution for future generation systems. A combination of these sources with an optimized configuration can face the climate change obstacles, permit better reliability, and reduce the cost of the generated energy. This paper presents a proposed particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm for an optimized design of grid-dependent hybrid photovoltaic-wind energy systems. This algorithm uses the actual hourly data of wind speeds, solar radiation, temperature, and electricity demand in a certain location. The PSO algorithm is employed to obtain the minimum cost of the generated energy while matching the electricity supply with the local demand with particular reliability index. The algorithm has been tested by considering a real case study used the actual situation to supply the electricity demand from utility grid at electricity market prices to estimate how significant are the cost saving compared to the actual situation costs. Results showed that the proposed algorithm responds well to changes in the system parameters and variables while providing a reliable sizing solution.

Swarm intelligence-based optimization of grid-dependent hybrid renewable energy systems

http://www.ecowrex.org/system/files/documents/renewable_energy_projects_to_electrify_rural_communities_in_cape_verde.pdf

Renewable energy projects to electrify rural communities in Cape Verde

In this paper we study the relationship between Venezuela's electricity development and its electricity industry, its dependence and the energy policies of the governments of the period of Representative Democracy (1958-1998) and of Participative Democracy (2004-2014). The methodology used consisted of a comparative historical analysis of the data on installed electrical capacity and per capita electricity compiled by the Regional Energy Integration Commission for Latin America, with special attention in the seven most populous countries of the region, including Venezuela. These data are compared with the oil prices and production data recorded by British Petroleum and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. From the results obtained it can be deduced that oil revenues and the availability of national fuels for the expansion of thermoelectric generation capacity have caused dependence on the electric industry, initiated with representative democracy and aggravated in the period of participative democracy. The comparison of both periods shows that the Venezuelan electricity sector is in its most serious crisis because the shortand medium-term perspectives indicate that the State will not be able to continue with the fuel subsidy. It is concluded that, in the current institutional context, the use of renewable energy for electricity generation, rather than an environmental issue, is an issue related to the economic sustainability of the Venezuelan electricity system

Renta petrolera y electrificación en Venezuela: Análisis histórico y transición hacia la sostenibilidad

Urban Freight Transport (UFT) entails significant advantages for the economic growth of cities, but can also hamper population quality of life, obstructing vehicles and people movements while exacerbating environmental problems. Many initiatives have been engaged by many city administrators in order to efficiently manage UFT, evaluating different policies at a global scale. From the perspective of operators, most works analyze a limited set of policies or only focus on the benefits of companies. In this work, a decisionmaking process is used to evaluate a large set of UFT policies, through different attributes representing the advantages and limitations of each policy over promoter companies and the society. To do so, an ex-ante procedure in five steps is proposed to classify the policies: (1) attributes definition, (2) attributes weighting, (3) policy-attribute assessment, (4) policy ranking, and (5) feasibility threshold satisfaction. The whole process is supported on consultations to 26 experts regarding shop supply and restocking activities within complex urban environments. Results show a classification of the analyzed policies, according to their suitability for implementation ; which could be extended (directly or with small adjustments) to other contexts, given the flexibility of the decision-making procedure developed.

Evaluating urban freight transport policies within complex urban environments

En el sector residencial, la paridad de red o grid parity es ya una realidad (o esta cercana) en muchos paises, lo que significa que el coste de la electricidad procedente de las instalaciones fotovoltaicas residenciales es igual o menor que el precio minorista de la electricidad. Sin embargo, no todas las instalaciones son igual de rentables. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el rendimiento economico de los sistemas de autoconsumo residenciales, y, en particular, el efecto del perfil de consumo sobre ese rendimiento. Para ello, se propone un modelo de simulacion que permite realizar un analisis comparativo del rendimiento de diferentes configuraciones de un sistema solar residencial conectado a la red. El modelo se aplica a distintos perfiles de consumo diferenciados, asi como diferentes configuraciones de paneles fotovoltaicos y baterias. El analisis permite observar la repercusion de los perfiles de consumo en el autoconsumo, la autarquia, la rentabilidad y, en definitiva, la paridad de red de la instalacion. Palabras clave: Sistemas fotovoltaicos, conexion a red, baterias, simulacion tecno-economica, perfiles de consumo, grid parity

Relationship between load profiles and grid parity in the residential solar energy

Nowadays, 1.2 billion people still lack of access to electricity. Autonomous systems based on renewable energy sources are an appropriate alternative extend electrification, in particular for Ecuadorian Amazon Region (RAE). The objective of this work is to propose a tool to design of autonomous electrification systems for rural isolated communities of RAE, using photovoltaic technology and micro-grid or individual systems, and taking into account technical, economic and social aspects. For this purpose, a mixed integer linear programming model is developed that solves the type and number of equipment to install and where to place each of them, as well as the distribution micro-grids. The tool has been validated in the design of the electrification system of the community of Conambo.

Design of electrification projects for communities in the Amazon Region of Ecuador

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