Prostate cancer has the highest prevalence of any nonskin cancer in the human body, with similar likelihood of neoplastic foci found within the prostates of men around the world regardless of diet, occupation, lifestyle, or other factors. Essentially all men with circulating androgens will develop microscopic prostate cancer if they live long enough. This review is a contemporary and comprehensive, literature-based analysis of the putative risk factors for human prostate cancer, and the results were presented at a multidisciplinary consensus conference held in Crystal City, Virginia, in the fall of 2002. The objectives were to evaluate known environmental factors and mechanisms of prostatic carcinogenesis and to identify existing data gaps and future research needs. The review is divided into four sections, including 1) epidemiology (endogenous factors [family history, hormones, race, aging and oxidative stress] and exogenous factors [diet, environmental agents, occupation and other factors, including lifestyle factors]); 2) animal and cell culture models for prediction of human risk (rodent models, transgenic models, mouse reconstitution models, severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome mouse models, canine models, xenograft models, and cell culture models); 3) biomarkers in prostate cancer, most of which have been tested only as predictive factors for patient outcome after treatment rather than as risk factors; and 4) genotoxic and nongenotoxic mechanisms of carcinogenesis. The authors conclude that most of the data regarding risk relies, of necessity, on epidemiologic studies, but animal and cell culture models offer promise in confirming some important findings. The current understanding of biomarkers of disease and risk factors is limited. An understanding of the risk factors for prostate cancer has practical importance for public health research and policy, genetic and nutritional education and chemoprevention, and prevention strategies.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/cncr.20408

Human prostate cancer risk factors.

High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia

The Incidence of High Grade Prostatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia in Needle Biopsies

Diagnosis of "suspicious for malignancy" in prostate biopsies: predictive value for cancer

Reasons for performing study: The hypometabolic and vasoconstrictive effects of cryotherapy could prevent the development of laminitis. Objectives: To use distal limb cryotherapy to prevent laminitis induced by alimentary carbohydrate overload. Methods: Laminitis was induced in 6 Standardbred horses that had one front limb continuously cooled in an ice/water mixture. Lameness evaluation, blinded lamellar histological grading and analysis for lamellar matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) mRNA expression were used to evaluate the severity of laminitis. Results: Cryotherapy was well tolerated and effective in cooling the feet. In each horse no lameness was observed in the treated limbs. Laminitis histology scores in the treated limbs were significantly less than those of the corresponding untreated forelimbs (P<0.05). Laminitis histology scores in the treated limbs were also significantly less than those of the untreated limbs (fore- and hind) as a group (P<0.05). Expression of MMP-2 mRNA in the iced feet was significantly (P<0.05) less than that detected in the untreated feet. Conclusions: Cryotherapy when applied to one foot, markedly reduced the severity of acute laminitis in this study. We propose that vasoconstriction (preventing delivery of haematogenous trigger factors) and hypometabolism (reduction in lamellar MMP activity) were the primary therapeutic mechanisms. Potential relevance: Although further research is needed, we suggest cryotherapy as a potentially effective prophylactic strategy in horses at risk of developing acute laminitis.

Equine laminitis: cryotherapy reduces the severity of the acute lesion

Interobserver variability in the diagnosis of high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and adenocarcinoma

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Interobserver variability in the diagnosis of high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and adenocarcinoma