Phosphogypsum circular economy considerations: A critical review from more than 65 storage sites worldwide

The phosphate industry produces a hazardous byproduct called phosphogypsum (PG). A rising global stockpiling of PG poses severe threats to public health and the environment. Fortunately, recycling this material may be a risk-free and environmentally beneficial answer to this problem. It is necessary to examine its current application and future growth prospects in civil engineering to increase the PG utilization rate. This paper summarizes previous research on reusing PG in building materials. This review article is divided into four essential sections. Firstly, the chemical properties of PG and their treatment methods before using PG in any application are reviewed extensively. Secondly, the strength properties of bricks made with PG and their microstructural characteristics through scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were reviewed. The third part of this article is about using PG as a substitution for cement and studies the setting time, compressive strength, SEM and XRD of cement mortar. The final section is PG-based concrete and studies concrete specimens' workability, compressive strength, SEM and XRD. The last three sections extensively focused on the microstructural characteristics of the building materials. Following a comprehensive literature search, it was determined that PG could be utilized in the construction industry. Several studies have been performed on using PG in building materials such as bricks, concrete and other materials. However, PG utilization in large-scale practical applications needs better social and political awareness. More money is needed for research and development to free the economy and technology from their shackles. The findings of this review will serve as a foundation for further research and practical applications of PG in environmentally friendly processes. 

Recent research in utilization of phosphogypsum as building materials: Review

Phosphogypsum (PG), the main industrial by-product of phosphate fertilizer industry, primarily consists of calcium sulfate dihydrate. However, it contains various impurities with variable quantities depending on the origin of the phosphate rock. These impurities can restrict the reuse of phosphogypsum as a secondary primary resource. Consequently, large quantities of produced PG are stored in surface stockpiles that occupy extensive land areas and may pose a significant risk of ecological contamination to the surroundings. Researchers have shown growing interest in addressing the worldwide accumulation of this waste material. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impact of phosphogypsum, it is crucial to explore its properties (e.g., chemistry, mineralogy, radioactivity), and how it interacts with the surrounding environment, enabling well-informed decisions decision regarding its management and its valorization. In this review, we will i) explore the chemical, radiological and mineralogical characteristics of PG; ii) discuss the environmental concerns related to land discharge and sea disposal; and iii) examine the latest advancements in various valorization techniques developed including agriculture, REE extraction, environmental application, chemical and thermal transformation, and also construction sector. Outlining their limitations and challenges restrict in the global variability of phosphogypsum (PG), technical and economic limitations, and the potential for secondary pollution in select valorization approaches. This requires a thorough assessment and comparison with conventional disposal alternatives. 

Exploring the potential reuse of PG: A waste or a resource?

Fly ash (FA), rich in aluminosilicates, and phosphogypsum (PG), rich in free calcium, could be excellent precursor materials to synthesize geopolymer concrete (GPC). In this paper, by using PG as feedstock to FA as per circular economy model, geopolymer concrete is developed. PG from 10 to 50% and molar concentration of NaOH from 8 to 14 M are varied to create the GPC. Further mechanical and durability properties are evaluated to ascertain the impact of NaOH molarity and PG content. The maximum strength of 47.97 MPa and durability results demonstrate that 30% PG and 12 M NaOH concentration are optimum dosages for successfully synthesis of GPC with the combination of FA and PG. The study pertinent to leaching illustrates that the optimal dosage of binder materials is efficacious in preventing release of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from GPC, endorsing that its usage in all practical applications do not endanger people or the environment. Micro-characterization discloses that free available calcium ions exquisitely participated in hydraulic reaction to form affluent cementitious gels such as calcium alumino-silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) and sodium alumino-silicate hydrate (N-A-S-H). The interpretation of various results portrays that both NaOH molarity and amount of free calcium has significant influence on GPC and played a crucial role in high strength attainment. A linear relationship for compressive strength versus durability properties imply that the developed GPC is more durable and sustainable exhibiting overall performance in all practical applications. 

NaOH molarity influence on mechanical and durability properties of geopolymer concrete made with fly ash and phosphogypsum

Value-added utilization of phosphogypsum industrial by-products in producing green Ultra-High performance Concrete: Detailed reaction kinetics and microstructure evolution mechanism

Resource utilization and development of phosphogypsum-based materials in civil engineering

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Resource utilization and development of phosphogypsum-based materials in civil engineering