Climate warming increases thermokarst landscapes and thus leads to land degradation in the Circum-Arctic regions. Thermokarst landscapes were estimated to cover ~ 20% of the northern permafrost region, and their development is related to ground ice content and topographic conditions. However, changes in thaw slump distribution and development in mid- to low-latitude permafrost areas largely remain unknown. Here, we selected the Qilian Mountains of the northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) as the study area. Combined with field investigation to measure the boundary of thaw slump using Real Time Kinematic (RTK), we analyzed historical changes in thaw slumps using 1969 and 1997 aerial photographs, 2009 and 2015 satellite imagery, and 2017 unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aerial images. The results showed that there are 15 thaw slumps covering an area of 0.03 km2, which were mainly distributed in terrain with a slope of 2–8° and elevation of 3552–3611 m. For the time periods of 1997–2009, 2009–2015, and 2015–2017, the average increase rates of thaw slump areas were approximately 61.8, 60.0, and 156.8 m2/y, and annual headwall retreat rates were approximately 1.3, 1.6 and 2.0 m/y. Based on the slopes, aspects, and altitudes from the Digital Elevation Model generated by UAV imagery, it suggested that geomorphic factors have no significant effect on the growth rates of thaw slump due to high heterogeneities of alpine environments. Our results showed that thaw slumps with polycyclic and active characteristics covered at least 0.9% of northern QTP permafrost regions and are expected to rapidly accelerate with climate warming.

Acceleration of thaw slump during 1997–2017 in the Qilian Mountains of the northern Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

China’s massive wave of urbanization may be threatened by land subsidence. Using a spaceborne synthetic aperture radar interferometry technique, we provided a systematic assessment of land subsidence in all of China’s major cities from 2015 to 2022. Of the examined urban lands, 45% are subsiding faster than 3 millimeters per year, and 16% are subsiding faster than 10 millimeters per year, affecting 29 and 7% of the urban population, respectively. The subsidence appears to be associated with a range of factors such as groundwater withdrawal and the weight of buildings. By 2120, 22 to 26% of China’s coastal lands will have a relative elevation lower than sea level, hosting 9 to 11% of the coastal population, because of the combined effect of city subsidence and sea-level rise. Our results underscore the necessity of enhancing protective measures to mitigate potential damages from subsidence. Editor’s summary Radar observations from satellites can track ground deformation. Over many years, radar can pick up even relatively small changes on the order of millimeters per year. Ao et al. used satellite observations to determine the extent of land subsidence across 82 major cities in China (see the Perspective by Nicholls and Shirzaei). They found that about 40% of the land is undergoing moderate to severe subsidence, which adds to the risk of flooding for a large population. —Brent Grocholski

A national-scale assessment of land subsidence in China’s major cities

Mechanism of shear strength deterioration of soil-rock mixture after freeze–thaw cycles

Surface subsidence threatens the structural stability of ground facilities located in mining-induced subsidence areas. Clarifying and evaluating the influence of surface subsidence can inform the construction and maintenance of various ground facilities, such as buildings, roads, and bridges. In this paper, we investigated mining-induced surface subsidence and areas of potential damage in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, by exploiting small-baseline set interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SBAS-InSAR) monitoring and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. More specifically, we first investigated the distributions of subsidence areas and subsidence rates in Yangquan City from June 16th, 2016, to December 1st, 2016, by exploiting SBAS-InSAR monitoring. We then classified ground facilities, such as buildings, highways and railways, and identified their distributions using spatial analysis using GIS. Finally, we integrated the results of the two techniques to evaluate the potential damages induced by surface subsidence for various ground facilities. We found that, overall, (1) surface subsidence has seriously developed in the Yangquan Mine and (2) some of the subsidence areas exist in facilities with high-level restrictions, such as high-rise buildings, highways, and railways, which may cause potential damage. Our work presented in this paper could be referred to and applied to other similar cases.

Investigating mining-induced surface subsidence and potential damages based on SBAS-InSAR monitoring and GIS techniques: a case study

The excessive extraction and recharge of groundwater lead to long-time seasonal land subsidence in Los Angeles, USA, and especially in the Santa Ana basin. The rate of land subsidence in the Santa Ana basin has been rising, which could pose a danger to infrastructure and human lives. However, the most recent research on land surface deformation in the area was conducted using the traditional parameter estimation method, resulting in little understanding of the regional spatiotemporal characteristics. The parametric method consists of a least square linear inversion, using the pre-defined mathematical geometric or geophysical theoretical models to describe groundwater deformation, and it requires precise external environmental variables and accurate geophysical parameters, which are more difficult to implement. In this study, multitemporal InSAR-derived deformation time series are analyzed by using 69 descending C-band Sentinel-1A SAR scenes acquired from 2015 to 2018. A method based on independent component analysis (ICA) is applied to characterize the spatial pattern and temporal evolution of land subsidence in the Santa Ana basin. The results reveal two different spatial and temporal deformation patterns in the basin. First, a widespread seasonal deformation is identified by the first component, related to annual seasonal groundwater level changes, and the overall deformation shows a concentrated spatial pattern. The second component captures a long-term signal with a large-scale spatial pattern. For quantitative assessment, the obtained deformation time series are compared with the GNSS data, validating an accuracy of millimeters. We further calculate the cross-correlation coefficient and the elastic skeletal storage coefficient from the ICA-derived seasonal deformation and groundwater level, which reveals that the deformation responds quickly (i.e., a lag of 8 days) to the change in groundwater and the Santa Ana aquifer retains almost the same elasticity for at least 15 years. Quantifying the spatiotemporal characteristics of the deformation in the Santa Ana basin can provide a reference for the monitoring and managing of groundwater.

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/11/2624/pdf?version=1654076354

Characterizing Spatiotemporal Patterns of Land Deformation in the Santa Ana Basin, Los Angeles, from InSAR Time Series and Independent Component Analysis

Oil is the most important resource in modern industry. However, with the continuous exploitation of oil and gas, disasters caused by ground deformation occur frequently. Among these disasters, the problem of land subsidence caused by oil field exploitation is the most serious. Land subsidence can cause damage to oil field production equipment and urban infrastructure. Therefore, the necessity and importance of monitoring the surface deformation caused by oil and gas exploration and predicting possible disasters should be recognized.

Oil and Gas Mining Deformation Monitoring and Assessments of Disaster: Using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technology

Los Angeles has undergone tremendous deformations over the past few decades, mainly due to human factors such as natural disasters and earthquakes, urban construction, overexploitation of groundwater, and oil extraction. The purpose of this study is to map the temporal and spatial variations of land subsidence in Los Angeles and to use the improved SBAS (small baseline subset) technique and multisensor SAR datasets to analyze the causes of deformations in this area from October 2003 to October 2017. At the same time, the deformation results of SBAS inversion are compared with the GPS measurements and the multisensor SAR dataset deformation, and the results are highly consistent. During the period from 2003 to 2017, there were several subsidence regions and one uplift region in Los Angeles. The cumulative subsidence was -266.8 mm at the maximum, and the average annual subsidence velocity was -19 mm/yr, which was mainly caused by groundwater overexploitation. The maximum amount of accumulated lift is +104.8 mm, and the average annual lifting velocity can reach +7.5 mm/yr. Our results have very strong practical application value and can provide a significant basis for local government services in disaster prevention and mitigation decision-making.

/pdf/using-multisensor-sar-datasets-to-monitor-land-subsidence-in-2ne74tlgsr.pdf

Using Multisensor SAR Datasets to Monitor Land Subsidence in Los Angeles from 2003 to 2017

Thaw slumps are well-developed within a 10 km wide zone along the Qinghai-Tibet engineering corridor, especially along the Qinghai-Tibet highway and railway. Previous studies have focused on thaw slump instability such as its origin development, headwall retrogression rate, failure scale, and thermal regime, yet the intrinsic dynamic process of surface movement is relatively less known. In this study, we used InSAR based on the L-band ALOS PALSAR images acquired from January 2007 to October 2010 to investigate the distribution of thaw-induced slope failures containing retrogressive thaw slumps and active layer detachment failures along the Qinghai-Tibet highway (QTH). Our InSAR analysis reveals that the maximum annual average sedimentation rates are even up to -35 mm·yr−1 in the slope direction to the K3035 thaw slump, and the K3035W active layer detachment failure developed on the west side of K3035. The distribution, failure extent, and stability of the slope failures obtained by our InSAR analysis all agree well with the field investigations. Our study illustrates that InSAR is an effective tool for studying the distribution and processes of the thaw slump-derived thermokarst and provides useful references for evaluating permafrost degradation in response to climate warming and external disturbance on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau.

Monitoring the Thaw Slump-Derived Thermokarst in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Using Satellite SAR Interferometry

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Papers

Oil and Gas Mining Deformation Monitoring and Assessments of Disaster: Using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technology

Using Multisensor SAR Datasets to Monitor Land Subsidence in Los Angeles from 2003 to 2017

Monitoring the Thaw Slump-Derived Thermokarst in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Using Satellite SAR Interferometry