Numerous researchers have developed theoretical and experimental approaches to force prediction in surface grinding under dry conditions. Nevertheless, the combined effect of material removal and plastic stacking on grinding force model has not been investigated. In addition, predominant lubricating conditions, such as flood, minimum quantity lubrication, and nanofluid minimum quantity lubrication, have not been considered in existing force models. This work presents an improved theoretical force model that considers material-removal and plastic-stacking mechanisms. Grain states, including cutting and ploughing, are determined by cutting efficiency (β). The influence of lubricating conditions is also considered in the proposed force model. Simulation is performed to obtain the cutting depth (ag) of each “dynamic active grain.” Parameter β is introduced to represent the plastic-stacking rate and determine the force algorithms of each grain. The aggregate force is derived through the synthesis of each single-grain force. Finally, pilot experiments are conducted to test the theoretical model. Findings show that the model's predictions are consistent with the experimental results, with average errors of 4.19% and 4.31% for the normal and tangential force components, respectively.

Analysis of grinding mechanics and improved predictive force model based on material-removal and plastic-stacking mechanisms

Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites: A review

YAG single crystals are the primary host materials for solid-state lasers at multi-kW scale and must be processed using ultra-precision grinding to achieve a satisfactory dimensional precision and surface integrity. However, the deformation mechanism of YAG crystals is not well understood, which has thus hindered the development of high efficiency grinding technology for the crystals. In this work, precision grinding of YAG single crystals was investigated. Ductile-like surfaces that are free of cracks and brittle-ductile surfaces that consist of fractured spots and ductile striations were found after grinding. The deformation mechanisms associated with the two types of surfaces were explored with the aid of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results indicated that the deformation involved in the formation of the ductile-like surface was mainly caused by the slippage of (0 0 1) crystal planes, along with the formation of dislocations and stacking faults and the distortion of atomic planes. The brittle-ductile surfaces were generated by the plastic deformation due to the formation of nanocrystals and nanovoids, combined with brittle fracture caused by the crack propagation initiated at intersections of slip lines. A theoretical model was developed to predict the grinding force in the ductile-like grinding process, which has taken the combined effect of strain rate, random distribution of abrasive radii and elastic-to-plastic transition depth into account for the first time. The key model parameters were obtained using a genetic algorithm trained using the experimental force data. The modelled force agrees well with the measured. This model enabled an in-depth understanding of the deformation mechanism of a crystal solid involved in ultraprecision grinding and the effect of strain rate on its material removal.

Deformation mechanism and force modelling of the grinding of YAG single crystals

Prior to any practical application, brittle material components may need to be machined to a high degree of precision in order to avoid functional breakdown as well as to maintain exacting surface dimensional integrity and retain strength. This usually means grinding in the ductile region. Optimization of the grinding process can shorten manufacturing time and cost and prolong component lifetime. This article reviews the current state of the art of ductile grinding and outlines the underlying science behind pertinent machining events. Engineering aspects of the grinding process will be surveyed, with consideration of wheel requirements and of such variables as grit characteristics, strain rate and temperature. Attention will be given to the fundamental role of removal processes from individual and cumulative microcontacts, using nanoscratch mechanics as the underlying basis for analysis. The critical influence of diversity in material microstructures in determining local deformation mechanisms and subsequent material removal will be highlighted. Practical requirements for optimal ductile grinding will be indicated.

Science and art of ductile grinding of brittle solids

Despite being the most promising third-generation semiconductor materials, the deformation and removal mechanisms of gallium nitride (GaN) single crystals involved in the ultra-precision machining process are not well revealed and few investigations on the grinding of GaN crystals have been reported, which hinders the development of high-efficiency and ultra-precision manufacturing of GaN components. Self-rotating grinding tests of GaN crystals were performed, and the results indicated that abrasive size had a significant influence on the surface morphology and roughness, in comparison with wheel rotational speed and feed speed. As the abrasive size decreased from 18 μm to 1.6 μm, the brittle fracture-dominated surface gradually changed to a full-plastic surface without brittle fractures and cracks. An ultra-smooth surface with a roughness of 1 nm in Sa was acquired using #8000 grinding wheels and a spark-out time of 10 min, which indicated that the machining technology of “grinding instead of polishing” of GaN crystals was achieved in this work. The plastic deformation mechanism of GaN crystals induced by ultra-precision machining was investigated using a cross-sectional TEM method and MD simulation, and both experimental and simulation results indicated that the plastic deformation involved in the scratching process was caused by the formation of polycrystalline nanocrystals, high-angle lattice misorientations, and close-to-atomic-scale defects, including stacking faults, dislocations and serious lattice distortions, along with a small amount of amorphous and phase transitions. There was an obvious delamination phenomenon in the plastic deformation zone. This research enhances the understanding of the deformation and damage mechanisms of GaN crystals involved in the ultra-precision machining process and is of significance for achieving the high-efficiency and high-accuracy manufacturing of GaN components.

Phase transition and plastic deformation mechanisms induced by self-rotating grinding of GaN single crystals

Material removal mechanism and grinding force modelling of ultrasonic vibration assisted grinding for SiC ceramics

Research of material removal and deformation mechanism for single crystal GGG (Gd3Ga5O12) based on varied-depth nanoscratch testing

The nano-indentation test for 6H-SiC is carried out with a Berkovich indenter. The indentation surface morphology is analyzed by SEM, which show that when the maximum load P
 max is 8 mN, there is only plastic deformation and no cracks on the surface of workpiece after unloading process, and when P
 max is 10 mN, there is the initiation of crack occurring on the surface of workpiece after unloading process. Based on the strain hardening model, the three-dimensional finite element method of nano-indentation for 6H-SiC is carried out. Simulation results show that in the unloading process the maximum stress and the maximum strain occur in the contact area between the workpiece with the indenter edges, which is consistent with the experimental results. When propagate to the surface from the subsurface, the cracks are subjected to the type I stress and the type II stress due to elastic recovery. After propagating to surface of workpiece, the cracks propagate along a fixed direction because the proportion of type I stress is much larger than that of type II stress. The influence of the cleavage plane on the propagation direction of cracks is obvious. The cracks propagate more easily when the indenter edges are along cleavage plane. The indentation depth and residual depth increase with the increase of P
 max. While, the elastic recovery rate gradually decreases and tends to be stable with the increase of P
 max. When P
 max is <10 mN, the micro-hardness and the elastic modulus increase linearly with the increase of P
 max. When P
 max exceeds 10 mN, the micro-hardness decreases with the increase of P
 max and then gradually tends to be stable, and the elastic modulus increases by power function with the increase of P
 max and then gradually tends to be stable.

Simulation and Experiment on Surface Morphology and Mechanical Properties Response in Nano-Indentation of 6H-SiC

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Papers

Material removal mechanism and grinding force modelling of ultrasonic vibration assisted grinding for SiC ceramics

Research of material removal and deformation mechanism for single crystal GGG (Gd3Ga5O12) based on varied-depth nanoscratch testing

Simulation and Experiment on Surface Morphology and Mechanical Properties Response in Nano-Indentation of 6H-SiC