High molecular weight (106–3 × 107 Da) polyacrylamide (PAM) is commonly used as a flocculant in water and wastewater treatment, as a soil conditioner, and as a viscosity modifier and friction reducer in both enhanced oil recovery and high volume hydraulic fracturing. These applications of PAM can result in significant environmental challenges, both in water management and in contamination of local water supplies after accidental spills. This paper provides a short review of current applications of high molecular weight PAM, including the potential for PAM degradation by chemical, mechanical, thermal, photolytic, and biological processes. Methods for treating wastewater containing partially degraded PAM are then discussed along with issues related to the potential toxicity and mobility of PAM in the environment after disposal or accidental release.

/pdf/polyacrylamide-degradation-and-its-implications-in-49zxgs8ts6.pdf

Polyacrylamide degradation and its implications in environmental systems

Potential and implemented membrane-based technologies for the treatment and reuse of flowback and produced water from shale gas and oil plays: A review

A critical review of risks, characteristics, and treatment strategies for potentially toxic elements in wastewater from shale gas extraction.

Fit-for-purpose treatment goals for produced waters in shale oil and gas fields.

A review of Moringa oleifera seeds in water treatment: Trends and future challenges

Polyacrylamide (PAM) based friction reducers are a primary ingredient of slickwater hydraulic fracturing fluids. Little is known regarding the fate of these polymers under downhole conditions, which could have important environmental impacts including decisions on strategies for reuse or treatment of flowback water. The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical degradation of high molecular weight PAM, including the effects of shale, oxygen, temperature, pressure, and salinity. Data were obtained with a slickwater fracturing fluid exposed to both a shale sample collected from a Marcellus outcrop and to Marcellus core samples at high pressures/temperatures (HPT) simulating downhole conditions. Based on size exclusion chromatography analyses, the peak molecular weight of the PAM was reduced by 2 orders of magnitude, from roughly 10 MDa to 200 kDa under typical HPT fracturing conditions. The rate of degradation was independent of pressure and salinity but increased significantly at high temperatur...

Chemical Degradation of Polyacrylamide during Hydraulic Fracturing

Polyacrylamide in hydraulic fracturing fluid causes severe membrane fouling during flowback water treatment

The purpose of this work is to determine parameters for the design of a Moringa seed sand filter for water purification. Moringa oleifera seeds containing cationic antimicrobial proteins have been used as natural coagulants for the removal of turbidity; however, a low removal efficiency and high residual organic levels limit their applications. In this work, Moringa seed extracts were used to reverse the charge of sand (f-sand) to 10 mV at a seed dosage of 5.6 g of seeds/m2 of sand. This f-sand filter demonstrated ∼4 log removal of 1 μm polystyrene particles and >8 log removal of Escherichia coli compared to <0.1 log removal for bare sand. Enhanced removal for particles and E. coli was dominated by attractive electrostatic interactions. Clean bed filtration modeling predicts a sticking coefficient (α) of 0.8 for f-sand compared to a value of 0.01 for bare sand. This α was further validated under a wide range of filtration conditions. Preliminary scale-up analyses suggest a point-of-use f-sand filter that ...

https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10091221

Moringa oleifera f-sand Filters for Sustainable Water Purification

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Chemical Degradation of Polyacrylamide during Hydraulic Fracturing

Polyacrylamide in hydraulic fracturing fluid causes severe membrane fouling during flowback water treatment

Chemical Degradation of Polyacrylamide during Hydraulic Fracturing

Moringa oleifera f-sand Filters for Sustainable Water Purification