restricted geographic distribution (H. punctigera, H. viriplaca) or host range (H. assulta, H. peltigera) than the major pest species. This review is limited to H. armigera, H. zea, H. vires cens, and H. punctigera. The other species, though of local significance, do not consistently achieve damaging pop­ ulations and have only been subject to superficial ecological study (10 , 27, 67, 105, 135 , 179, 192). Other minor pest species occur in the African genus Heliocheilus but are not dealt with here (see 105a). As key pests of several agricultural and horticultural crops, the four species I have singled out for review have attracted an enormous volume of research work. Consequently, the literature on their ecology , biology and management is vast. Rather than attempt a comprehensive review of all facets of the biology and ecology of Heliothis spp. in agricultural systems, I concentrate on

The Ecology of Heliothis Species in Relation to Agroecosystems

The taxonomy and identification of Heliothis armigera and H. punctigera, their distribution and host plants in Australia, the effect of host plant on reproduction and on the development and survival of immature stages, their movements, population biology and dynamics, and their control, are reviewed. Areas where further study is desirable include: the nature of host plant selection and host species preference; adaptability to new cultivars; effects of host plant on development; detailed life-table studies on different host plants; the contribution of predation, parasitism and disease to mortality; factors responsible for fluctuations in populations between years, including the origins of outbreak populations; and control strategies other than insecticide treatment.

The Biology and Ecology of Heliothis-Armigera (hubner) and Heliothis-Punctigera Wallengren (lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in Australia - What Do We Know

The night‐time environment is increasingly being lit, often by broad‐spectrum lighting, and there is growing evidence that artificial light at night (ALAN) has consequences for ecosystems, potentially contributing to declines in insect populations. Moths are species‐rich, sensitive to ALAN, and have undergone declines in Europe, making them the ideal group for investigating the impacts of light pollution on nocturnal insects more broadly. Here, we take a life cycle approach to review the impacts of ALAN on moths, drawing on a range of disciplines including ecology, physiology, and applied entomology. We find evidence of diverse impacts across most life stages and key behaviours. Many studies have examined flight‐to‐light behaviour in adults and our meta‐analysis found that mercury vapour, metal halide, and compact fluorescent bulbs induce this more than LED and sodium lamps. However, we found that ALAN can also disrupt reproduction, larval development, and pupal diapause, with likely negative impacts on individual fitness, and that moths can be indirectly affected via hostplants and predators. These findings indicate that ALAN could also affect day‐flying insects through impacts on earlier life stages. Overall, we found strong evidence for effects of artificial light on moth behaviour and physiology, but little rigorous, direct evidence that this scales up to impacts on populations. Crucially, there is a need to determine the potential contribution of ALAN to insect declines, relative to other drivers of change. In the meantime, we recommend precautionary strategies to mitigate possible negative effects of ALAN on insect populations.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/icad.12447

Is light pollution driving moth population declines? A review of causal mechanisms across the life cycle

Four years of light-trap and crop survey data from the Namoi Valley of New South Wales are presented for Heliothis armigera (Hb.) and H. punctigera Wllgr. These suggest there are four generations a year. The associated seasonal sequence of major host-plants supporting successive generations, appeared to be: H. armigera—wheat; pre-flowering cotton; flowering cotton and sorghum; sorghum, flowering cotton and sunflowers; and H. punctigera—lucerne, linseed and medics; pre-flowering cotton; flowering cotton, sunflowers and soyabeans; lucerne, linseed and medics; pre-flowering cotton. On host-plants common to both species, a change in dominance from H. punctigera to H. armigera occured as each summer progressed. Suggested causes are: seasonal changes in the availability of host-plants, favouring H. armigera over H. punctigera; insecticide resistance in H. armigera; and the competitive superiority of H. armigera. Large numbers of H. armigera in cotton appeared to be related to: warm springs, which favoured moth emergence during the period of wheat anthesis; the incomplete control of infestations within cotton itself, leading to the development of resident populations; and the influx of moths from other host-plants, especially sorghum, during the latter half of the season.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0007485300009822

The incidence of Heliothis armigera (Hübner) and H. punctigera Wallengren (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on cotton and other host-plants in the Namoi Valley of New South Wales

The diversity of the very species-rich family of geometrid moths was investigated in a montane forest at the border of the Podocarpus National Park in southern Ecuador along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 1,040 m to 2,677 m above sea level. This study is part of a larger interdisciplinary project on diversity and functioning of a montane forest ecosystem. A total of 13,938 moths representing 1,010 species were sampled in light-traps at eleven elevational levels (two replicate sites each). Most species belonged to the subfamily Ennominae (500 sp.), followed by Larentiinae (391 sp.), Sterrhinae (58 sp.), Geometrinae (57 sp.), Oenochrominae (3 sp.), and Desmobatrinae (1 sp.). The study covers aspects of host-plant relationships, community structure, endemism, alpha-, beta-, and gamma-diversity. The role of different environmental factors as mechanisms for the diversity of the moths is discussed. Furthermore, methodological aspects of light-trap sampling, and selection of appropriate diversity measures and analytical tools are considered in this study.%%%%Die Diversitat der sehr artenreichen Familie Geometridae wurde entlang eines Hohengradienten (1040 - 2677 m Meereshohe) in einem montanen Bergregenwald am Rand des Podocarpus-Nationalparks in Sudecuador untersucht. Die vorliegende Studie ist in die Arbeit einer interdisziplinaren Forschergruppe eingebunden, die die Diversitat sowie funktionale Zusammenhange in einem Bergregenwald-Okosystem untersucht. Insgesamt wurden 13938 Falter mit Hilfe von Lichtfallen auf elf Hohenstufen (mit je zwei Standorten pro Stufe) gesammelt und ausgewertet. Die Zahl der nachtaktiven Arten belauft sich auf insgesamt 1010. Die meisten Arten gehoren der Unterfamilie Ennominae an (500 sp.), gefolgt von Larentiinae (391 sp.), Sterrhinae (58 sp.), Geometrinae (57 sp.), Oenochrominae (3 sp.) und Desmobathrinae (1 sp.). Die Dissertation umfasst Alpha-, Beta- und Gamma-Diversitat, Wirtspflanzenbeziehungen, Gemeinschaftsstrukturen und Endemismus. Die Rolle verschiedener Umweltfaktoren als zugrundeliegende Mechanismen der Diversitat der Geometridae wird ebenso diskutiert wie die Veranderung der Korpergrosen entlang des Hohengradienten. Auserdem werden methodische Probleme des Lichtfangs und der Wahl geeigneter Diversitatsmase und Auswertungsverfahren erortert.

Diversity of geometrid moths in a montane rainforest in Ecuador

In I968 and I969 noctuids were caught by means of a light trap at Bunkeflo, south of Malmo (prov. Scania). Hourly catches were separated. Sex differences in the diel distribution of catch were found. In summer, the males showed their highest activity around midnight. The females then showed a bimodal catch curve with the highest catch before, and a second weaker peak after midnight. In summer, light was found to be the factor governing the nocturnal distribution of catch, in autumn temperature. In I970 observations and experiments on captured moths were performed. Start of flight in the twilight period was found to be induced by the decreasing light. The moths started at higher light values if the temperature during this period was high. In actograph experiments it was found that moonlight has a depressing effect on the activity of noctuids.

Influence of Light on Flight Activity of Noctuids (Lepidoptera) in South Sweden

The diel egg-laying activity was recorded by means of an egg-laying recording apparatus. Simultaneous hourly registrations of temperature and nocturnal illumination were obtained. With few exceptions egg-laying occurred during the night. The activity was highest in the first part of the night and a bimodal distribution curve was found. Moonlight had a depressing effect; above 0.1 lux no eggs were laid. The influence of the moon was more clearly visible at high temperatures. An attempt is made to explain the biomodal distribution curve found.

Diel Distribution of Oviposition in Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.), Agrotis munda (Walk.), and Heliothis armigera (Hbn.), (Lep. Noctuidae), in Relation to Temperature and Moonlight1

A light-trap separating hourly catches was operated on a pasture research station in south coastal Queensland for 18 months in 1972 and 1973. A total of 339 000 Noctuid moths was captured. Half of the catch comprised pest species. Weather and nocturnal illumination were recorded on the trapping site. Multiple regression analyses were performed on the raw data, and, for comparison, some pest species were reared under semi-field conditions for a year. Night temperature, night wind and nocturnal illumination, in that order, were the most important factors influencing catch. Temperature and wind were each responsible for about one-fifth of the variance in catch, nocturnal illumination for about one-tenth. Twenty per cent of the variance in catch cannot be ascribed to changes in local weather or illumination. Wind had a significantly stronger influence on males than on females all year round, temperature a significantly stronger one on females than on males in summer. This was probably due to differences in the vertical distribution of flight in the two sexes, females flying lower than males. Nocturnal illumination had a significantly stronger influence on females than on males; on females its influence was almost as strong as that of wind, increasing with rising temperature to be twice as strong in summer as in winter. Females were most abundant in the first part of the night, males in the second. Temperature, wind and moonlight maintain this nocturnal distribution which is probably endogenously controlled. Female flight is probably linked to oviposition, male flight to response to pheromone release from calling females. Heavy out-of-season rainfall had a negative effect on Noctuid populations in the area and strongly increased both larval and adult mortality. Temperatures and rainfall during the larval and adult periods equal to the corresponding long-term averages and totals create optimal conditions for the development of Noctuid populations. Strong indications of migration were found in autumn and spring of 1973. Many moths of different species probably entered the area during nights with wind convergence caused by the passage of cold fronts. Separate analyses on the most abundant pest species confirmed the results of the analyses on the total catch of Noctuids.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0007485300006477

Influence of weather and nocturnal illumination on the activity and abundance of populations of Noctuids (Lepidoptera) in south coastal Queensland

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Influence of Light on Flight Activity of Noctuids (Lepidoptera) in South Sweden

Diel Distribution of Oviposition in Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.), Agrotis munda (Walk.), and Heliothis armigera (Hbn.), (Lep. Noctuidae), in Relation to Temperature and Moonlight1

Influence of weather and nocturnal illumination on the activity and abundance of populations of Noctuids (Lepidoptera) in south coastal Queensland