Objective: Our aim was to review empirical studies of complacency and bias in human interaction with automated and decision support systems and provide an integrated theoretical model for their explanation. Background: Automation-related complacency and automation bias have typically been considered separately and independently. Methods: Studies on complacency and automation bias were analyzed with respect to the cognitive processes involved. Results: Automation complacency occurs under conditions of multiple-task load, when manual tasks compete with the automated task for the operator’s attention. Automation complacency is found in both naive and expert participants and cannot be overcome with simple practice. Automation bias results in making both omission and commission errors when decision aids are imperfect.Automation bias occurs in both naive and expert participants, cannot be prevented by training or instructions, and can affect decision making in individuals as well as in teams.While automation bias has been conceived of as a special case of decision bias, our analysis suggests that it also depends on attentional processes similar to those involved in automation-related complacency. Conclusion: Complacency and automation bias represent different manifestations of overlapping automation-induced phenomena, with attention playing a central role. An integrated model of complacency and automation bias shows that they result from the dynamic interaction of personal, situational, and automation-related characteristics. Application: The integrated model and attentional synthesis provides a heuristic framework for further research on complacency and automation bias and design options for mitigating such effects in automated and decision support systems.

/pdf/complacency-and-bias-in-human-use-of-automation-an-46rbc31k66.pdf

Complacency and bias in human use of automation: an attentional integration.

OBJECTIVE: The authors discuss empirical studies of human-automation interaction and their implications for automation design. BACKGROUND: Automation is prevalent in safety-critical systems and increasingly in everyday life. Many studies of human performance in automated systems have been conducted over the past 30 years. METHODS: Developments in three areas are examined: levels and stages of automation, reliance on and compliance with automation, and adaptive automation. RESULTS: Automation applied to information analysis or decision-making functions leads to differential system performance benefits and costs that must be considered in choosing appropriate levels and stages of automation. Human user dependence on automated alerts and advisories reflects two components of operator trust, reliance and compliance, which are in turn determined by the threshold designers use to balance automation misses and false alarms. Finally, adaptive automation can provide additional benefits in balancing workload and maintaining the user's situation awareness, although more research is required to identify when adaptation should be user controlled or system driven. CONCLUSIONS: The past three decades of empirical research on humans and automation has provided a strong science base that can be used to guide the design of automated systems. APPLICATION: This research can be applied to most current and future automated systems. Language: en

Humans : Still Vital After All These Years of Automation

The effects of adaptive task allocation on monitoring for automation failure during multitask flight simulation were examined. Participants monitored an automated engine status task while simultaneously performing tracking and fuel management tasks over three 30-min sessions. Two methods of adaptive task allocation, both involving temporary return of the automated engine status task to the human operator ("human control"), were examined as a possible countermeasure to monitoring inefficiency. For the model-based adaptive group, the engine status task was allocated to all participants in the middle of the second session for 10 min, following which it was again returned to automation control. The same occurred for the performance-based adaptive group, but only if an individual participant's monitoring performance up to that point did not meet a specified criterion. For the nonadaptive control groups, the engine status task remained automated throughout the experiment. All groups had low probabilities of detection of automation failures for the first 40 min spent with automation. However, following the 10-min intervening period of human control, both adaptive groups detected significantly more automation failures during the subsequent blocks under automation control. The results show that adaptive task allocation can enhance monitoring of automated systems. Both model-based and performance-based allocation improved monitoring of automation. Implications for the design of automated systems are discussed.

Effects of adaptive task allocation on monitoring of automated systems

Objective: We examined the effects of aid reliability and reliability disclosure on human trust in and reliance on a combat identification (CID) aid. We tested whether trust acts as a mediating factor between belief in and reliance on a CID aid. Background: Individual CID systems have been developed to reduce friendly fire incidents. However, these systems cannot positively identify a target that does not have a working transponder. Therefore, when the feedback is "unknown", the target could be hostile, neutral, or friendly. Soldiers have difficulty relying on this type of imperfect automation appropriately. Method: In manual and aided conditions, 24 participants completed a simulated CID task. The reliability of the aid varied within participants, half of whom were told the aid reliability level. We used the difference in response bias values across conditions to measure automation reliance. Results: Response bias varied more appropriately with the aid reliability level when it was disclosed than when not. Trust in aid feedback correlated with belief in aid reliability and reliance on aid feedback; however, belief was not correlated with reliance. Conclusion: To engender appropriate reliance on CID systems, users should be made aware of system reliability. Application: The findings can be applied to the design of information displays for individual CID systems and soldier training.

Trust and Reliance on an Automated Combat Identification System

We discuss two general concepts of attention: (1) As a filter of selective attention that selects and admits channels of information from the environment to be processed; (2) as a resource to enabl...

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10447318.2021.1874741

Attention: Theory, Principles, Models and Applications

Tactical displays can quickly become cluttered with large numbers of symbols that can compromise effective monitoring. Here, we studied how heuristic automation can aid users by intelligently "decluttering" the display. In a realistic simulated naval air defense task, 27 experienced U.S. Navy users monitored a cluttered airspace and executed defensive responses against significant threats. An algorithm continuously evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat and decluttered the less threatening ones by dimming their symbols. Users appropriately distrusted and spot-checked the automation's assessments, and decluttering had very little effect on which aircraft were judged as significantly threatening. Nonetheless, decluttering improved the timeliness of responses to threatening aircraft by 25% as compared with a baseline display with no decluttering; it was especially beneficial for threats in more peripheral locations, and 25 of 27 participants preferred decluttering. Heuristic automation, when properly designed to guide users' attention by decluttering less important objects, may prove valuable in many cluttered monitoring situations, including air traffic management, crisis team management, and tactical situation awareness in general.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1518/001872005774860014

Heuristic automation for decluttering tactical displays.

: Reducing the clutter on geographical displays should help military decision-makers manage their attention and concentrate on the most important or threatening tracks. This report presents a study that considered the question of how the decluttered tracks should be represented. The declutter symbols must simultaneously reduce distraction while still supporting situation awareness. We used a visual search task to evaluate six declutter symbologies. The symbologies were created by manipulating two factors, symbol type and coloring. The symbol types were relatively complex MIL-STD-2525B symbols that coded substantial information about the tracks, simplified outlines of ships and aircraft that coded an intermediate amount of information, and simple dots that coded minimal information. The coloring factor consisted of using either faded versions of the MIL%ST%2525B colors or using gray. We also investigated the effect of different amounts of declutter, from no declutter to 25% declutter, 50% declutter, and 75% declutter. The participants were 52 undergraduate students from local universities. Participants searched for two target symbols among a field of 48 symbols that were a mixture of fully visible, brightly colored MIL-STD-2525B symbols and decluttered symbols. The targets always appeared among the fully visible symbols, and the decluttered symbols merely served as distracters. Each increase in the amount of declutter produced a significant and linear drop in search time. The intermediately complex symbol outlines produced the least distraction and the fastest search times, but the differences among symbol types were small. Surprisingly, the faded colored symbols produce as little distraction and as fast search times as the gray symbols.

Evaluating Alternative Symbologies for Decluttering Geographical Displays

Tactical displays can quickly become cluttered with large numbers of symbols that can compromise effective monitoring. Here, we studied how heuristic automation can aid users by intelligently “decluttering” the display. In a naval air defense task, users monitored a cluttered airspace and executed defensive responses against significant threats. An algorithm continuously evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat and decluttered the less threatening ones by dimming their symbols. As expected, 27 Navy experts appropriately distrusted and spot-checked the automation's assessments, and decluttering did not affect which aircraft were judged significantly threatening. Nonetheless, decluttering improved response timeliness to threatening aircraft 25% compared with a baseline display with no decluttering, it increased attention to threats, and 25 of 27 participants preferred decluttering. Heuristic automation, when properly designed to guide users' attention by decluttering less important objects, should prov...

Heuristic Automation for Decluttering Tactical Displays

: Operational displays can quickly become congested with large numbers of symbols. This report discusses our study of a naval air defense task in which users monitored a cluttered airspace, evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat, and executed defensive responses against significant threats. A heuristic threat assessment algorithm continuously evaluated aircraft for their levels of threat, and it "decluttered" the less threatening ones by decreasing the salience of their symbols on the geographical display. As expected, 27 expert U.S. Navy users appropriately distrusted the automation and continuously checked its assessments. Nonetheless, decluttering improved response timeliness to threatening aircraft by 25% compared with a baseline display with no decluttering, and it was especially beneficial for detecting and monitoring threats in more peripheral locations on the display. Decluttering did not affect which aircraft were deemed threatening, and 25 out of 27 users preferred using a declutter display over the baseline display.

An Intelligent Threat Assessment Tool for Decluttering Naval Air Defense Displays

Ergonomics Society of the Human Factors and Human Factors: The Journal

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