Populations are locally adapted when populations have the highest relative fitness at their home sites, and lower fitness in other parts of the range. Results from the extensive experimental plantations of populations of forest trees from different parts of the range show that populations can survive and grow in broad areas outside the home site. However, intra- and interspecific competition limit the distribution of genotypes. For populations from large parts of the range, relative fitness, compared with the local population, is often highest at the home site. At the edges of the range, this local adaptation may break down. The extent of local adaptation is determined by the balance between gene flow and selection. Genetic differentiation and strong natural selection occur over a range of tens or hundreds of kilometers, but reliable measurements of gene flow are available only for much shorter distances. Current models of spatially varying selection could be made more realistic by the incorporation of strong selection and isolation-by-distance characteristic of tree populations. Many studies suggest that most variation in adaptive traits is based on loci with small effects. Association genetics methods and improved genomic resources are useful for the identification of the loci responsible for this variation. The potential for adaptation to current climate change depends on genetic variation and dispersal and establishment rates.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/30033873.pdf

Gene Flow and Local Adaptation in Trees

http://www.pierroton.inra.fr/Fairoak/Papers2001/fem156_1_3.pdf

Identification of refugia and post-glacial colonisation routes of European white oaks based on chloroplast DNA and fossil pollen evidence

Response of forest trees to global environmental changes

Aim: The southern European peninsulas (Iberian, Italian and Balkan) are considered to have been refugia for many European species of plants and animals during the climatic extremes of the Pleistocene ice ages. A number of recent studies (fossil and genetic), however, have provided evidence for full-glacial survival of some species beyond these peninsulas. Here we explore the biogeographical traits of these species, and ask whether they possessed certain characteristics that enabled them to persist in more northerly refugia.
 
Location: Europe.
 
Methods: Fossil and genetic evidence for refugial localities of species that survived in Europe during the last full-glacial was obtained from the literature (totalling 90 species: 34 woody plants and 56 vertebrates). Forty-seven of these species (23 woody plants and 24 vertebrates) had fossil evidence, whereas the remaining 43 species (11 woody plants and 32 vertebrates) had only genetic evidence. All species were scored according to their present geographical distribution, habitat preference and life-history traits. The species were classified on the basis of these traits using hierarchical cluster analysis. Analysis of similarities was used to examine differences in vertebrate and woody plant species groups that survived only in southerly refugia and those that also persisted
in more northerly locations. Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling was used to examine patterns observed between and within groups.
 
Results: Results from our analysis of species with fossil and genetic evidence for survival in refugia reveal that species that survived only in southerly refugia were large-seeded trees or thermophilous vertebrates. In contrast, species that had a full-glacial distribution, including more northerly locations, were wind-dispersed, habitat-generalist trees with the ability to reproduce vegetatively, and habitatgeneralist mammals with present-day northerly distributions.
 
Main conclusions: Analysis of the geographical distribution, habitat preference and life-history traits of the species studied suggests that underlying biogeographical traits may have determined their response to Pleistocene glaciation. The traits most commonly found in present populations with a northerly distribution in Europe enabled the same species to exist much farther north than the southern European peninsulas during the full-glacial. It is possible that many of these species are now in restricted populations, within the ‘warm stage’ refugia of the current interglacial. The northerly full-glacial survival of a number of woody plants and vertebrate species has significant implications for understanding migration rates of these species in response to climate change. It also has important implications for understanding current patterns of genetic diversity of European species. We suggest that both fossil and genetic evidence should be used to identify and prioritize for conservation of refugial localities in southern and northern Europe.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01861.x

Species persistence in northerly glacial refugia of Europe: a matter of chance or biogeographical traits?

Identifying and monitoring locally adaptive genetic variation can have direct utility for conserving species at risk, especially when management may include actions such as translocations for restoration, genetic rescue, or assisted gene flow. However, genomic studies of local adaptation require careful planning to be successful, and in some cases may not be a worthwhile use of resources. Here, we offer an adaptive management framework to help conservation biologists and managers decide when genomics is likely to be effective in detecting local adaptation, and how to plan assessment and monitoring of adaptive variation to address conservation objectives. Studies of adaptive variation using genomic tools will inform conservation actions in many cases, including applications such as assisted gene flow and identifying conservation units. In others, assessing genetic diversity, inbreeding, and demographics using selectively neutral genetic markers may be most useful. And in some cases, local adaptation may be assessed more efficiently using alternative approaches such as common garden experiments. Here we identify key considerations of genomics studies of locally adaptive variation, provide a roadmap for successful collaborations with genomics experts including key issues for study design and data analysis, and offer guidelines for interpreting and using results from genomic assessments to inform monitoring programs and conservation actions.

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/eva.12569

Guidelines for planning genomic assessment and monitoring of locally adaptive variation to inform species conservation.

http://www.pierroton.inra.fr/Fairoak/Papers2001/fem156_1_4.pdf

Is there a correlation between chloroplastic and nuclear divergence, or what are the roles of history and selection on genetic diversity in European oaks?

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Is there a correlation between chloroplastic and nuclear divergence, or what are the roles of history and selection on genetic diversity in European oaks?