Directed energy deposition (DED) has matured into an essential additive manufacturing (AM) branch. DED has been broadly implemented in the design and fabrication of novel materials. These include metals, ceramics, and composites. Successful DED operation requires a good understanding of many critical phenomena, including laser-material interactions, fundamentals of casting and solidification of alloys, welding metallurgy and joining interfaces, along with microstructure-mechanical properties relations. Also critical are powder flowability, heat transfer, and various machine-related parameters. Several review articles have been published in recent years on metal AM via powder bed fusion (PBF) and DED, focusing on either a specific material system, mapping the recent technologies for AM, or issues related to the deposition process or material properties. Yet, no recent review is dedicated to a comprehensive presentation of material systems, design, fabrication, challenges, and the relationship between microstructures and mechanical properties of various DED'ed material families. Since the DED-based approach is becoming popular to manufacture bimetallic and multi-material structures, repair high-value structures, and alloy design, this comprehensive review focuses on materials design via DED, including a survey of a variety of monolithic and multi-material compositions. Finally, the critical challenges and opportunities in this area are highlighted. 

http://manuscript.elsevier.com/S0921509322003744/pdf/S0921509322003744.pdf

Laser-based directed energy deposition (DED-LB) of advanced materials

Wire arc additive manufacturing is currently rising as the main focus of research groups around the world. This is directly visible in the huge number of new papers published in recent years concerning a lot of different topics. This review is intended to give a proper summary of the international state of research in the area of wire arc additive manufacturing. The addressed topics in this review include but are not limited to materials (e.g., steels, aluminum, copper and titanium), the processes and methods of WAAM, process surveillance and the path planning and modeling of WAAM. The consolidation of the findings of various authors into a unified picture is a core aspect of this review. Furthermore, it intends to identify areas in which work is missing and how different topics can be synergetically combined. A critical evaluation of the presented research with a focus on commonly known mechanisms in welding research and without a focus on additive manufacturing will complete the review.

The Current State of Research of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM): A Review

Arc welding-based additive manufacturing techniques are becoming promising for metal additive manufacturing due to their capability of economically producing large-sized components with relatively high deposition rates. This article introduces wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) and reviews the microstructure and mechanical properties of various metals and alloys fabricated through this technique. Research indicates positive results as the mechanical properties of WAAM fabricated materials, such as titanium and nickel-based alloys, are found relatively comparable to cast or wrought materials. A feasible state-of-the-art WAAM requires controlling several processing parameters to achieve sound components, so an elaborated review is presented on selecting suitable process parameters. High-quality production in WAAM is limited due to elevated levels of heat inputs, causing several materials processing challenges and defects. Common challenges faced in the fabrication of various metals and alloys through WAAM, including high residual stresses, porosity, delamination, and cracking, are described in this article. The defect mitigation techniques and the recent advances performed in the field of WAAM are summarized in the last section of this paper. This paper concludes that WAAM can be an alternative process for high-quality manufacturing and presents a future vision to make WAAM more industry-oriented technology. 

A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: Processing parameters, defects, quality improvement and recent advances

Hot-wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminum alloy with reduced porosity and high deposition rate

In this work, SiC particles were added to the molten pool during WAAM of a high strength low alloy steel. The introduction of these high melting point particles promoted grain refinement, and the precipitation of Fe3C due to SiC dissociation. The microstructural evolution was studied by optical and electron microscopy techniques and high energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Additionally, mechanical testing and hardness profiles were obtained for the SiC-containing and SiC-free parts. An improvement in the mechanical strength of the SiC-added WAAM parts was observed, which was attributed to the refined grain structure and finely dispersed Fe3C.

In-situ strengthening of a high strength low alloy steel during Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)

Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) was used for fabrication of NiTi parts using a commercialy available Ni-rich NiTi wire as the feedstock material. The as-built parts are near fully austenitic at room temperature as confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction and superelastic cycling. The as-built microstructure changed from collumnar, in the first deposited layers, to equiaxed in the last deposited ones as a result of the different thermal cycle conditions. This is the first work where WAAM NiTi parts exhibit superelastic behavior under tensile conditions, highlighting the potential use of the technique for the creation of parts shaped in a complex manner based on this material and process. The potential to use WAAM for deposition of advanced functional materials is demonstrated.

Wire and arc additive manufacturing of a Ni-rich NiTi shape memory alloy: microstructure and mechanical properties

Ultra high-frequency pulsed gas tungsten arc welding (UHFP-GTAW)-based Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) was used to fabricate thin walls of NiTi shape memory alloys. The transient heat and fluid flow are critical during fusion-based additive manufacturing, since they impact the as-built microstructure. In this work, a three-dimensional numerical model, which includes the force, surface Gauss heat source and periodic droplet transfer models, was developed to simulate the deposition of 5 layers. The gravity, buoyancy, electromagnetic, surface tension, arc pressure and arc shear stress are considered in the developed force model. An improved free surface tracing method using the volume of fluid (VOF) technique was proposed to more effectively track the free surface of the molten pool with the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software FLUENT. The multiphysic phenomena associated to the process, namely the temperature and velocity fields of the molten pool, were studied. The model was then validated by experiments. It is revealed that the microstructure of the as-built parts is refined by the UHFP current power which induces significant vibration of the molten pool. These findings lay the foundations for optimizing the WAAM process aiming at fabricating high quality and complex NiTi parts.

Multi-layer deposition mechanism in ultra high-frequency pulsed wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of NiTi shape memory alloys

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Wire and arc additive manufacturing of a Ni-rich NiTi shape memory alloy: microstructure and mechanical properties

Multi-layer deposition mechanism in ultra high-frequency pulsed wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of NiTi shape memory alloys