Simulation studies of Non-Ionising Energy Loss (NIEL) in silicon exposed to various types of hadron irradiation are presented. A simulation model of migration and clustering of the produced primary defects is developed. Although there are many uncertainties in the input parameters it is shown that the model is consistent with experimental observations on standard and oxygen-enriched silicon. However, the model makes the rather dramatic prediction that NIEL scaling of leakage current and effective doping concentration can be violated significantly even in standard silicon. Although there are possible shortcomings in the model which might account for this, it is shown that at the microscopic level there is, indeed, no obvious reason for an exact NIEL scaling. Furthermore, it is argued that, contrary to common belief, even a significant violation of NIEL scaling can still be consistent with experimental data.

Simulation of non-ionising energy loss and defect formation in silicon

In this paper, we review the radiation damage issues caused by displacement damage in silicon sensors operating in the harsh radiation environments of high energy physics experiments. The origin and parameterization of the changes in the macroscopic electrical sensor properties such as depletion voltage, leakage current, and charge collection efficiency as a function of fluence of different particles, annealing time, and annealing temperature are reviewed. The impact of impurities in the silicon base crystal on these changes is discussed, revealing their effects on the degradation of the sensor properties. Differences on how segmented and nonsegmented devices are affected and how device engineering can improve radiation hardness are explained and characterization techniques used to study sensor performance and the electric field distribution inside the irradiated devices are outlined. Finally, recent developments in radiation hardening and simulation techniques using technology computer-aided design modeling are given. This paper concludes with radiation damage issues in presently operating experiments and gives an outlook of radiation-hardened technologies to be used in the future upgrades of the Large Hadron Collider and beyond.

/pdf/displacement-damage-in-silicon-detectors-for-high-energy-3eexsdcqbq.pdf

Displacement Damage in Silicon Detectors for High Energy Physics

This paper describes the AC-coupled, single-sided, p-in-n silicon microstrip sensors used in the Semiconductor Tracker (SCT) of the ATLAS experiment at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) The sensor requirements, specifications and designs are discussed, together with the qualification and quality assurance procedures adopted for their production The measured sensor performance is presented, both initially and after irradiation to the fluence anticipated after 10 years of LHC operation The sensors are now successfully assembled within the detecting modules of the SCT, and the SCT tracker is completed and integrated within the ATLAS Inner Detector Hamamatsu Photonics Ltd supplied 922percent of the 15,392 installed sensors, with the remainder supplied by CiS

The silicon microstrip sensors of the ATLAS semiconductor tracker

A set of standard and oxygenated silicon diodes with different resistivities (1 and 15 kΩ cm ) was irradiated with neutrons to fluences up to 2×10 14 cm −2 , 1 MeV neutron NIEL equivalent. After beneficial annealing the signal response from the diodes was studied using transient current technique. Red laser (λ=670 nm ) illumination was used for creation of electrons and holes. Assuming exponential decrease of the drifting charge in time, the effective trapping probability of electrons and holes was deduced from the evolution of the induced current at voltages above the full depletion voltage. The effective trapping probabilities of holes were found to be larger than of electrons. The trapping probability is shown to scale linearly with fluence. No significant difference between effective trapping probabilities for different materials was measured.

/pdf/determination-of-effective-trapping-times-for-electrons-and-1buqhfc2vp.pdf

Determination of effective trapping times for electrons and holes in irradiated silicon

Silicon detectors are used or going to be used as tracking devices in many high energy physics experiments. Therefore they are located close to the interaction point, where the detectors are exposed to very high particle fluxes and ionization doses, especially in future experiments with very high energies and luminosities. Ongoing investigations concerning the radiation damage, started already several years ago, include bulk and surface damage related questions. The two main objectives of these studies are: (1) predict the radiation induced change in the detector parameters expected for any application, and (2) improve the radiation hardness of the detectors. A general overview of the current progress of the radiation hardness studies towards these goals is given here.

/pdf/radiation-hardness-of-silicon-detectors-current-status-2vwm5cpexe.pdf

Radiation hardness of silicon detectors: current status

The damage induced by pions in silicon detectors is studied for positive and negative pions for fluences up to 1014 cm−2 and 1013 cm−2, respectively. Results on the energy dependence of the damage in the region of 65 to 330 MeV near to the Δ resonance are presented. The change in detector characteristics such as leakage current, charge collection efficiency and effective impurity concentration including long-term annealing effects have been studied. Comparisons to neutron- and proton-induced damage are presented and discussed.

/pdf/pion-induced-damage-in-silicon-detectors-xj97bzbheh.pdf

Pion-induced damage in silicon detectors

The paper discusses the current status of radiation damage to the bulk material of silicon detectors. In particular the main effects of current increase, change in the effective charge carrier density and its effect on the operation voltage, and the signal charge collection in silicon detectors are reviewed. Detailed measurements have allowed parametrization of the effects, which are in turn used to simulate long term performance of detectors in the environment expected in future hadron collider experiments. Recent results on pion damage measurements are highlighted. Studies aimed at reducing systematic errors inherent in comparing analyses of different groups are discussed, as are possible indications of material dependent effects from recent measurements.

Radiation induced bulk damage in silicon detectors

Silicon detectors, which will be used as tracking detectors in LHC-experiments, face special requirements; one major challenge is the long term operation of the detectors in very intense radiation fields. This paper describes a design for double-sided strip detectors, which takes these requirements into account. Irradiation tests have been carried out using 24 GeV protons. The change of detector characteristics in particular guardring-behaviour, punchthrough biasing and interstrip isolation has been studied.

Irradiation tests of double-sided silicon strip detectors optimized for the ATLAS-inner-detector-region

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Pion-induced damage in silicon detectors

Radiation induced bulk damage in silicon detectors

Irradiation tests of double-sided silicon strip detectors optimized for the ATLAS-inner-detector-region