The Shockley–Ramo theorem is reviewed based on the conservation of energy. This review shows how the energy is transferred from the bias supplies to the moving charge within a device. In addition, the discussion extends the original theorem to include cases in which a constant magnetic field is present, as well as when the device medium is heterogeneous. The rapid development of single polarity charge sensing techniques implemented in recent years on semiconductor γ-ray detectors are summarized, and a fundamental interpretation of these techniques based on the Shockley–Ramo theorem is presented.

/pdf/review-of-the-shockley-ramo-theorem-and-its-application-in-1xqbmy5vmk.pdf

Review of the Shockley–Ramo theorem and its application in semiconductor gamma-ray detectors

A summary is presented of the present status of several compound semiconductor radiation detectors, including detectors fabricated from GaAs, HgI2, CdTe, Cd1−xZnxTe and PbI2

Room-temperature compound semiconductor radiation detectors

A method for obtaining both spatial and energy resolution in compound semiconductor x-ray detectors using charge carriers of only a single polarity. A negatively biased cathode contact is applied to one side of a block detector material and an array of anode stripes is applied to the other side. Absorbed x-rays generate charge clouds in the detector block, and charge sensitive preamplifiers measure the time varying charges q i (t) induced on the anodes by the motion of these charge clouds within the detector. For each stripe j, one or more secondary signals Q k,m (t) are formed as weighted sums of the signals q k (t) from the stripe j and a combination of its near neighbors. One or another of these signals Q k,m (t) can then be processed to obtain the energy of the absorbed x-ray, the position where it was absorbed, both laterally and in depth, and the time of the absorption.

X-ray detector method and apparatus for obtaining spatial, energy, and/or timing information using signals from neighboring electrodes in an electrode array

Starting from 1960s, a great number of missions and experiments have been performed for the study of the high-energy sky. This review gives a wide vision of the most important space missions and balloon experiments that have operated in the 10–600 keV band, a crucial window for the study of the most energetic and violent phenomena in the Universe. Thus it is important to take the stock of the achievements to better establish what we have still to do with future missions in order to progress in this field, to establish which are the technologies required to solve the still open issues and to extend our knowledge of the Universe.

Hard X-Ray/Soft Gamma-Ray Experiments and Missions: Overview and Prospects

CdZnTe detectors have been under development for the past two decades, providing good stopping power for gamma rays, lightweight camera heads and improved energy resolution. However, the performance of this type of detector is limited primarily by incomplete charge collection problems resulting from charge carriers trapping. This paper is a review of the progress in the development of CdZnTe unipolar detectors with some data correction techniques for improving performance of the detectors. We will first briefly review the relevant theories. Thereafter, two aspects of the techniques for overcoming the hole trapping issue are summarized, including irradiation direction configuration and pulse shape correction methods. CdZnTe detectors of different geometries are discussed in detail, covering the principal of the electrode geometry design, the design and performance characteristics, some detector prototypes development and special correction techniques to improve the energy resolution. Finally, the state of art development of 3-D position sensing and Compton imaging technique are also discussed. Spectroscopic performance of CdZnTe semiconductor detector will be greatly improved even to approach the statistical limit on energy resolution with the combination of some of these techniques.

/pdf/progress-in-the-development-of-cdznte-unipolar-detectors-for-4m68gzk32g.pdf

Progress in the Development of CdZnTe Unipolar Detectors for Different Anode Geometries and Data Corrections

We report performance measurements of a sub-millimeter resolution CdZnTe strip detector developed as a prototype for astronomical instruments operating with good efficiency in the 30-300 keV photon energy range. The prototype is a 1.4 mm thick, 64/spl times/64 contact stripe CdZnTe array of 0.375 mm pitch in both dimensions. Pulse height spectra were recorded in orthogonal-stripe coincidence mode which demonstrate room-temperature energy resolution 5:1. Good response is also demonstrated at higher energies using a coplanar grid readout configuration. Spatial resolution capabilities finer than the stripe pitch are demonstrated. We present the image of a /sup 133/Ba source viewed through a collimator slit produced by a 4/spl times/4 stripe detector segment. Charge signals from electron and hole collecting contacts are also discussed.

/pdf/development-of-an-orthogonal-stripe-cdznte-gamma-radiation-5bkmehlq0j.pdf

Development of an orthogonal-stripe CdZnTe gamma radiation imaging spectrometer

We report performance measurements of a sub-millimeter resolution CdZnTe strip detector developed as a prototype for astronomical instruments. The prototype is a 1.4 mm thick, 64 × 64 stripe CdZnTe array with 0.375 mm pitch in both dimensions. Pulse height spectra in orthogonal stripe coincidence mode were recorded at several energies. The room-temperature energy resolutions is 5:1. We also demonstrate spatial resolution capabilities finer than the stripe pitch.

/pdf/large-area-sub-millimeter-resolution-cdznte-strip-detector-1tolg1umhb.pdf

Large-area sub-millimeter resolution CdZnTe strip detector for astronomy

A New Balloon-Borne Detector for High Angular Resolution Hard X-Ray Astronomy

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Development of an orthogonal-stripe CdZnTe gamma radiation imaging spectrometer

Large-area sub-millimeter resolution CdZnTe strip detector for astronomy

A New Balloon-Borne Detector for High Angular Resolution Hard X-Ray Astronomy