The introduction of synthetic zeolites has led to a paradigm shift in catalysis, separations, and adsorption processes, due to their unique properties such as crystallinity, high-surface area, acidity, ion-exchange capacity, and shape-selective character. However, the sole presence of micropores in these materials often imposes intracrystalline diffusion limitations, rendering low utilisation of the zeolite active volume in catalysed reactions. This critical review examines recent advances in the rapidly evolving area of zeolites with improved accessibility and molecular transport. Strategies to enhance catalyst effectiveness essentially comprise the synthesis of zeolites with wide pores and/or with short diffusion length. Available approaches are reviewed according to the principle, versatility, effectiveness, and degree of reality for practical implementation, establishing a firm link between the properties of the resulting materials and the catalytic function. We particularly dwell on the exciting field of hierarchical zeolites, which couple in a single material the catalytic power of micropores and the facilitated access and improved transport consequence of a complementary mesopore network. The carbon templating and desilication routes as examples of bottom-up and top-down methods, respectively, are reviewed in more detail to illustrate the benefits of hierarchical zeolites. Despite encircling the zeolite field, this review stimulates intuition into the design of related porous solids (116 references).

Hierarchical zeolites: enhanced utilisation of microporous crystals in catalysis by advances in materials design.

This review focuses on important aspects of applying physisorption for the pore structural characterization of hierarchical materials such as mesoporous zeolites. During the last decades major advances in understanding the adsorption and phase behavior of fluids confined in ordered nanoporous materials have been made, which led to major progress in the physisorption characterization methodology (summarized in the 2015 IUPAC report on physisorption characterization). Here we discuss progress and challenges for the physisorption characterization of nanoporous solids exhibiting various levels of porosity from micro- to macropores. While physisorption allows one to assess micro- and mesopores, a widely employed method for textural analysis of macroporous materials is mercury porosimetry and we also review important insights associated with the underlying mechanisms governing mercury intrusion/extrusion experiments. Hence, although the main focus of this review is on physical adsorption, we strongly emphasize the importance of combining advanced physical adsorption with other complementary experimental techniques for obtaining a reliable and comprehensive understanding of the texture of hierarchically structured materials.

Recent advances in the textural characterization of hierarchically structured nanoporous materials

Great interest has arisen in the past years in the development of hierarchical zeolites, having at least two levels of porosities. Hierarchical zeolites show an enhanced accessibility, leading to improved catalytic activity in reactions suffering from steric and/or diffusional limitations. Moreover, the secondary porosity offers an ideal space for the deposition of additional active phases and for functionalization with organic moieties. However, the secondary surface represents a discontinuity of the crystalline framework, with a low connectivity and a high concentration of silanols. Consequently, hierarchical zeolites exhibit a less “zeolitic behaviour” than conventional ones in terms of acidity, hydrophobic/hydrophilic character, confinement effects, shape-selectivity and hydrothermal stability. Nevertheless, this secondary surface is far from being amorphous, which provides hierarchical zeolites with a set of novel features. A wide variety of innovative strategies have been developed for generating a secondary porosity in zeolites. In the present review, the different synthetic routes leading to hierarchical zeolites have been classified into five categories: removal of framework atoms, surfactant-assisted procedures, hard-templating, zeolitization of preformed solids and organosilane-based methods. Significant advances have been achieved recently in several of these alternatives. These include desilication, due to its versatility, dual templating with polyquaternary ammonium surfactants and framework reorganization by treatment with surfactant-containing basic solutions. In the last two cases, the materials so prepared show both mesoscopic ordering and zeolitic lattice planes. Likewise, interesting results have been obtained with the incorporation of different types of organosilanes into the zeolite crystallization gels, taking advantage of their high affinity for silicate and aluminosilicate species. Crystallization of organofunctionalized species favours the formation of organic–inorganic composites that, upon calcination, are transformed into hierarchical zeolites. However, in spite of this impressive progress in novel strategies for the preparation of hierarchical zeolites, significant challenges are still ahead. The overall one is the development of methods that are versatile in terms of zeolite structures and compositions, capable of tuning the secondary porosity properties, and being scaled up in a cost-effective way. Recent works have demonstrated that it is possible to scale-up easily the synthesis of hierarchical zeolites by desilication. Economic aspects may become a significant bottleneck for the commercial application of hierarchical zeolites since most of the synthesis strategies so far developed imply the use of more expensive procedures and reagents compared to conventional zeolites. Nevertheless, the use of hierarchical zeolites as efficient catalysts for the production of high value-added compounds could greatly compensate these increased manufacturing costs.

Synthesis strategies in the search for hierarchical zeolites

A 2 orders of magnitude gas transport improvement in a medium pore ZSM-5 zeolite has been achieved upon introduction of intracrystalline mesoporosity in gradient-free crystals by desilication post-treatment in alkaline medium.

Direct Demonstration of Enhanced Diffusion in Mesoporous ZSM-5 Zeolite Obtained via Controlled Desilication

Design of hierarchical zeolite catalysts by desilication

PFG NMR has been applied to study intracrystalline diffusion in USY zeolite as well as in the parent ammonium-ion exchanged zeolite Y used to produce the USY by zeolite steaming The diffusion studies have been performed for a broad range of molecular displacements and with two different types of probe molecules (n-octane and 1,3,5-triisopropylbenzene) having critical molecular diameters smaller and larger than the openings of the zeolite micropores Our experimental data unambiguously show that, in contrast to what is usually assumed in the literature, the intracrystalline mesopores do not significantly affect intracrystalline diffusion in USY This result indicates that the intracrystalline mesopores of USY zeolite do not form a connected network, which would allow diffusion through crystals only via mesopores

The role of mesopores in intracrystalline transport in USY zeolite: PFG NMR diffusion study on various length scales.

Universitat Leipzig, Fakultat fur Physik und Geowissenschaften, Linnestr. 5, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany. Cepsa Research Center, Picos de Europa, 7 Poligono Industrial San Fernando de Henares II, 28850 San Fernando de Henares, Spain, SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Department of Hydrocarbon Process Chemistry, P.O.Box 124 Blindern Forskningsveien 1, N-0314 Oslo, Norway, National Technical University of Athens, School of Chemical Engineering, 9 Heroon Polytechniou, Zografou Campus, Athens, GR-157 80, Greece, Grace GmbH & Co. KG, In Der Hollerhecke 1, D-67545 Worms, Germany, Institute of Chemical Technology, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic, J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry, Dolejskova 3, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic, Universitat Stuttgart, Institut fur Technische Chemie, Pfaffenwaldring 55, D-70550 Stuttgart, Germany, Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.o. Box 1033 Blindern, N-0315 Oslo, Norway

Investigations of Molecular Diffusion in FCC Catalysts

Pulsed-field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance study of transport properties of fluid catalytic cracking catalysts.

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The role of mesopores in intracrystalline transport in USY zeolite: PFG NMR diffusion study on various length scales.

Investigations of Molecular Diffusion in FCC Catalysts

Pulsed-field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance study of transport properties of fluid catalytic cracking catalysts.