Land use is central to addressing sustainability issues, including biodiversity conservation, climate change, food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable energy. In this paper, we synthesize knowledge accumulated in land system science, the integrated study of terrestrial social-ecological systems, into 10 hard truths that have strong, general, empirical support. These facts help to explain the challenges of achieving sustainability in land use and thus also point toward solutions. The 10 facts are as follows: 1) Meanings and values of land are socially constructed and contested; 2) land systems exhibit complex behaviors with abrupt, hard-to-predict changes; 3) irreversible changes and path dependence are common features of land systems; 4) some land uses have a small footprint but very large impacts; 5) drivers and impacts of land-use change are globally interconnected and spill over to distant locations; 6) humanity lives on a used planet where all land provides benefits to societies; 7) land-use change usually entails trade-offs between different benefits—"win–wins" are thus rare; 8) land tenure and land-use claims are often unclear, overlapping, and contested; 9) the benefits and burdens from land are unequally distributed; and 10) land users have multiple, sometimes conflicting, ideas of what social and environmental justice entails. The facts have implications for governance, but do not provide fixed answers. Instead they constitute a set of core principles which can guide scientists, policy makers, and practitioners toward meeting sustainability challenges in land use. 

Ten facts about land systems for sustainability

Abstract Twenty-five years since foundational publications on valuing ecosystem services for human well-being 1,2 , addressing the global biodiversity crisis 3 still implies confronting barriers to incorporating nature’s diverse values into decision-making. These barriers include powerful interests supported by current norms and legal rules such as property rights, which determine whose values and which values of nature are acted on. A better understanding of how and why nature is (under)valued is more urgent than ever 4 . Notwithstanding agreements to incorporate nature’s values into actions, including the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) 5 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals 6 , predominant environmental and development policies still prioritize a subset of values, particularly those linked to markets, and ignore other ways people relate to and benefit from nature 7 . Arguably, a ‘values crisis’ underpins the intertwined crises of biodiversity loss and climate change 8 , pandemic emergence 9 and socio-environmental injustices 10 . On the basis of more than 50,000 scientific publications, policy documents and Indigenous and local knowledge sources, the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) assessed knowledge on nature’s diverse values and valuation methods to gain insights into their role in policymaking and fuller integration into decisions 7,11 . Applying this evidence, combinations of values-centred approaches are proposed to improve valuation and address barriers to uptake, ultimately leveraging transformative changes towards more just (that is, fair treatment of people and nature, including inter- and intragenerational equity) and sustainable futures. 

Diverse values of nature for sustainability

Earth’s biodiversity and human societies face pollution, overconsumption of natural resources, urbanization, demographic shifts, social and economic inequalities, and habitat loss, many of which are exacerbated by climate change. Here, we review links among climate, biodiversity, and society and develop a roadmap toward sustainability. These include limiting warming to 1.5°C and effectively conserving and restoring functional ecosystems on 30 to 50% of land, freshwater, and ocean “scapes.” We envision a mosaic of interconnected protected and shared spaces, including intensively used spaces, to strengthen self-sustaining biodiversity, the capacity of people and nature to adapt to and mitigate climate change, and nature’s contributions to people. Fostering interlinked human, ecosystem, and planetary health for a livable future urgently requires bold implementation of transformative policy interventions through interconnected institutions, governance, and social systems from local to global levels. Description Facing coupled environmental crises Humanity is facing major social and ecological impacts from climate change and biodiversity loss. These two crises are intertwined, with common causes and effects on one another. Pörtner et al. review the results of a joint meeting of members of the International Panels on Climate Change and Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. They discuss the connections between biodiversity loss and climate change and propose potential solutions for addressing them as interconnected problems. Drastic reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, protection of multiuse landscapes and seascapes, and policies for providing equitable access to natural resources can help to ensure future ecological function and human well-being. —BEL A Review presents a guide to addressing climate change and biodiversity loss as nonindependent crises. BACKGROUND Two intertwined crises threaten human well-being: Climate change—arising from human-induced greenhouse gas emissions, including those from the loss of biomass and biodiversity—is raising temperatures beyond those of the Holocene, when human civilization evolved and expanded globally. Mean warming and the increasing frequency and severity of extreme events in turn disturb ecosystem functioning, cause habitat loss to humans and biodiversity, and exacerbate the unprecedented loss of biodiversity already caused by human-induced habitat degradation, overexploitation of natural resources, and pollution. Both crises reduce nature’s contributions to people, which sustain well-being, livelihoods, economies, and development prospects and also support climate change adaptation and mitigation. Failing to act will increase human vulnerability, including poverty, food insecurity, involuntary displacement, and political instability and conflict. The coupled global climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts concern land, freshwater, and ocean ecosystems alike but are insufficiently tackled by current actions, as identified by assessments of both the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services). None of the 20 2011–2020 Aichi biodiversity targets and none of the mileposts on climate trajectories intended to limit warming to 1.5°C have been met. ADVANCES Climate, biodiversity, and societal challenges are intertwined but are often treated as singular problems. Solutions exist with cobenefits across sectors. In intact and functional ecosystems, nature is efficient at carbon capture (by photosynthesis) and sequestration (long-term removal from the carbon cycle), provided that warming is limited to 1.5°C or below through ambitious emissions reductions. Strengthening the biosphere on land, in freshwater, and in the ocean will support climate change mitigation, adaptation, biodiversity, human well-being, and livelihoods. Mounting scientific evidence points to the need to prioritize protection of remaining undamaged carbon- and species-rich environments and to implement targeted restoration projects, with more attention to effectively sustaining biodiversity and fairly distributed societal cobenefits. Three critical objectives for future spatial planning include a habitable climate, self-sustaining biodiversity, and sustained provisioning of nature’s contributions to people to support development and a good quality of life for all. Coordinated efforts among science and policy can identify and help navigate development pathways toward climate resilience for both human society and biodiversity. OUTLOOK New global biodiversity, climate, and sustainability targets envisioned for 2030 and 2050 will likely fail if drivers behind climate change and biodiversity loss remain insufficiently addressed or concrete actions to meet current political agreements and goals do not increase in pace and scale. The following actions are urgently needed. (i) Ambitious emissions reduction, combined with suitable adaptation measures. (ii) Effective protection of an average of 30 to 50% of surface areas across a mosaic of interspersed and interconnected land, ocean, and freshwater “scapes.” These cover a gradient, from pristine ecosystems; to spaces shared by humans and wild species and sustainably used; to spaces under intensive uses such as cities, which nonetheless can harbor substantial biodiversity in terrestrial and aquatic spaces. Efforts need to consider the specific spatial demands for healthy ecosystems. (iii) Building of development pathways and the underpinning of political, economic, and social institutions (including norms and rules) on visions such as collective responsibility, sustainable and circular uses of natural resources, avoidance of overconsumption and waste, and more equitable and participatory development regionally and globally. (iv) The enabling of just and equitable access to and benefits from natural assets across societies, groups, and individuals, securing good quality of life. Transformative action can overcome siloed approaches through institutional and individual change, achieving sustainability for nature and people, as well as human, ecosystem, and planetary health. Climate, biodiversity, and human society are coupled through dynamic interactions across scales. Human-caused exploitation and climate change are increasingly threatening biodiversity and nature’s contributions to people, causing losses and damages exemplified through overfished stocks and excessive drought that harm productive habitats. CREDITS: SCHEMATIC (LEFT): S. LANGSDORF; ILLUSTRATIONS (RIGHT): N. CARY AND A. MASTIN/SCIENCE

Overcoming the coupled climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts

Ambitious conservation efforts are needed to stop the global biodiversity crisis. In this study, we estimate the minimum land area to secure important biodiversity areas, ecologically intact areas, and optimal locations for representation of species ranges and ecoregions. We discover that at least 64 million square kilometers (44% of terrestrial area) would require conservation attention (ranging from protected areas to land-use policies) to meet this goal. More than 1.8 billion people live on these lands, so responses that promote autonomy, self-determination, equity, and sustainable management for safeguarding biodiversity are essential. Spatially explicit land-use scenarios suggest that 1.3 million square kilometers of this land is at risk of being converted for intensive human land uses by 2030, which requires immediate attention. However, a sevenfold difference exists between the amount of habitat converted in optimistic and pessimistic land-use scenarios, highlighting an opportunity to avert this crisis. Appropriate targets in the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework to encourage conservation of the identified land would contribute substantially to safeguarding biodiversity. 

/pdf/the-minimum-land-area-requiring-conservation-attention-to-2is7cpuf.pdf

The minimum land area requiring conservation attention to safeguard biodiversity

Abstract The 2020 global spatial targets for protected areas set by the Convention on Biological Diversity have almost been achieved, but management effectiveness remains deficient. Personnel shortages are widely cited as major contributing factors but have not previously been quantified. Using data from 176 countries and territories, we estimate a current maximum of 555,000 terrestrial protected area personnel worldwide (one per 37 km 2 ), including 286,000 rangers (one per 72 km 2 ), far short of published guidance on required densities. Expansion by 2030 to 30% coverage of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures is widely agreed as a minimum for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services. We project that effective management of this expanded system will require approximately 3 million personnel (one per 13 km 2 ), including more than 1.5 million rangers or equivalents (one per 26 km 2 ). Parallel improvements in resourcing, working conditions and capacity are required for effective, equitable and sustainable management. 

/pdf/protected-area-personnel-and-ranger-numbers-are-insufficient-dkfvm7xj.pdf

Protected area personnel and ranger numbers are insufficient to deliver global expectations

Debate about what proportion of the Earth to protect often overshadows the question of how nature should be conserved and by whom. We present a systematic review and narrative synthesis of 169 publications investigating how different forms of governance influence conservation outcomes, paying particular attention to the role played by Indigenous peoples and local communities. We find a stark contrast between the outcomes produced by externally controlled conservation, and those produced by locally controlled efforts. Crucially, most studies presenting positive outcomes for both well-being and conservation come from cases where Indigenous peoples and local communities play a central role, such as when they have substantial influence over decision making or when local institutions regulating tenure form a recognized part of governance. In contrast, when interventions are controlled by external organizations and involve strategies to change local practices and supersede customary institutions, they tend to result in relatively ineffective conservation at the same time as producing negative social outcomes. Our findings suggest that equitable conservation, which empowers and supports the environmental stewardship of Indigenous peoples and local communities represents the primary pathway to effective long-term conservation of biodiversity, particularly when upheld in wider law and policy. Whether for protected areas in biodiversity hotspots or restoration of highly modified ecosystems, whether involving highly traditional or diverse and dynamic local communities, conservation can become more effective through an increased focus on governance type and quality, and fostering solutions that reinforce the role, capacity, and rights of Indigenous peoples and local communities. We detail how to enact progressive governance transitions through recommendations for conservation policy, with immediate relevance for how to achieve the next decade’s conservation targets under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity.

/pdf/the-role-of-indigenous-peoples-and-local-communities-in-1d60kbyfrh.pdf

The role of Indigenous peoples and local communities in effective and equitable conservation

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The role of Indigenous peoples and local communities in effective and equitable conservation