The objective of this review was to update Sobal and Stunkard’s exhaustive review of the literature on the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and obesity (Psychol Bull 1989;105:260–75). Diverse research databases (including CINAHL, ERIC, MEDLINE, and Social Science Abstracts) were comprehensively searched during the years 1988–2004 inclusive, using ‘‘obesity,’’ ‘‘socioeconomic status,’’ and synonyms as search terms. A total of 333 published studies, representing 1,914 primarily cross-sectional associations, were included in the review. The overall pattern of results, for both men and women, was of an increasing proportion of positive associations and a decreasing proportion of negative associations as one moved from countries with high levels of socioeconomic development to countries with medium and low levels of development. Findings varied by SES indicator; for example, negative associations (lower SES associated with larger body size) for women in highly developed countries were most common with education and occupation, while positive associations for women in medium- and low-development countries were most common with income and material possessions. Patterns for women in higher- versus lower-development countries were generally less striking than those observed by Sobal and Stunkard; this finding is interpreted in light of trends related to globalization. Results underscore a view of obesity as a social phenomenon, for which appropriate action includes targeting both economic and sociocultural factors.

http://bvsper.paho.org/texcom/nutricion/29.pdf

Socioeconomic Status and Obesity

A systematic analysis of global anemia burden from 1990 to 2010

Global Gender Disparities in Obesity: A Review

https://mahb.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Social-Science-Med_Womens-empowerment-and-fertility.pdf

Women's empowerment and fertility: a review of the literature.

During the last few decades, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) experienced rapid socio-cultural changes caused by the accelerating economy in the Arabian Gulf region. That was associated with major changes in the food choices and eating habits which, progressively, became more and more "Westernized". Such "a nutritional transition" has been claimed for the rising rates of overweight and obesity which were recently observed among Saudi population. Therefore, the objectives of the current work were to 1) determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity in a sample of male college students in KSA and 2) determine the relationship between the students' body weight status and composition and their eating habits. A total of 357 male students aged 18-24 years were randomly chosen from College of Health Sciences at Rass, Qassim University, KSA for the present study. A Self-reported questionnaire about the students' eating habits was conducted, and their body mass index (BMI), body fat percent (BF%), and visceral fat level (VFL) were measured. Data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software, and the Chi-square test was conducted for variables. The current data indicated that 21.8% of the students were overweight and 15.7% were obese. The total body fat exceeded its normal limits in 55.2% of the participants and VFL was high in 21.8% of them. The most common eating habits encountered were eating with family, having two meals per day including breakfast, together with frequent snacks and fried food consumption. Vegetables and fruits, except dates, were not frequently consumed by most students. Statistically, significant direct correlations were found among BMI, BF% and VFL (P < 0.001). Both BMI and VFL had significant inverse correlation with the frequency of eating with family (P = 0.005 and 0.007 respectively). Similar correlations were also found between BMI and snacks consumption rate (P = 0.018), as well as, between VFL and the frequency of eating dates (P = 0.013). Our findings suggest the need for strategies and coordinated efforts at all levels to reduce the tendency of overweight, obesity and elevated body fat, and to promote healthy eating habits in our youth.

/pdf/obesity-and-eating-habits-among-college-students-in-saudi-1js7ahofpn.pdf

Obesity and eating habits among college students in Saudi Arabia: a cross sectional study

OBJECTIVES 
Overweight, particularly obesity is a major risk factor for several important diseases, especially hypertension, coronary heart diseases and diabetes mellitus. Our aim is to determine the prevalence of obesity and central obesity among Omani adults aged > or =20 years, and to identify the socio-demographic and health variables that correlate to obesity and central obesity in a community based survey (National Health Survey, 2000).
 METHODS 
A community based cross-sectional survey representing all parts of Oman was designed in the year 2000. A part of the survey was a door to door interviews including demographic data, weight, height, hip and waist measurements, blood pressure and fasting blood glucose and serum cholesterol for adults aged > or =20 years.
 RESULTS 
The crude prevalence of overweight and obesity (body mass index >25 kg/m2) was 47.9% for the whole sample, and 46.2% for males, 49.5% for females. The crude prevalence of central obesity (abnormal weight hips ratio) was 49.3% for the whole sample, 31.5% for males, and 64.6% for females. Obesity and central obesity were less prevalent among younger age groups and highly educated subjects. Both obesity and central obesity increased the odds of having diabetes, hypertension and hyperchlostremia.
 CONCLUSIONS 
The prevalence of obesity and central obesity is quietly high in Oman. Launching nutritional programs and promotional life style modification programs are recommended.

https://smj.org.sa/content/smj/24/6/641.full.pdf

Prevalence and correlates of obesity and central obesity among Omani adults.

OBJECTIVES 
International studies have the inverse relationship of women education and empowerment on fertility. Our aim is to study the association of women education, and empowerment with some of the fertility determinants in a community based survey.
 METHODS 
A cross sectional survey of the health status of the Omani community was designed. Face to face interviews with 2037 women, who were or had been married including demographic data, fertility patterns, family planning, 2 women empowerment indices (decision making and freedom of movement), and other modules reproductive health, were carried out during the year 2000.
 RESULTS 
About 31% of the sample was considered highly empowered in decision making and the mean number of decisions taken in the household was 4.46 for the overall sample. For freedom of movement, 29% of the sample was highly empowered with a mean number of 3.88 for the overall sample. The mean values of both indices varied significantly according to age, residence, level of education and work status. Higher freedom of movement score women were more likely to have less number of children in the first 20 years of marriage. Women of higher score of decision making index were more likely to have longer closed birth interval Those scored low in the decision making index were more likely to get a child at an earlier age.
 CONCLUSIONS 
There is inverse relationship between both education and empowerment and fertility. However, the 2 indices of women empowerment; decision making and freedom of movement were not always predicting the same fertility indicator, as women's empowerment is multidimensional in nature.

https://smj.org.sa/content/smj/24/7/748.full.pdf

Determinants of women's fertility in Oman.

Objectives:  The study aimed to describe the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) and its components among Omani adults.  Methods:  The 2008 Oman World Health Survey dataset was used to determine the national prevalence of MS. Logistic regression using all key sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural variables was used to identify the associations of independent variables with MS.  Results:  The age-adjusted prevalence of MS was 23.6%. MS was significantly associated with age, marital and work status and wealth level. MS was more common for people aged 50 years and older compared to the youngest cohort (OR 3.6, CI: 2.4–5.3;  P  <0.001) and in people who were married or employed (OR 1.6, CI: 1.3–2.1;  P  <0.001 and OR 1.3, CI: 1.1–1.8;  P  = 0.043, respectively) compared to their unmarried and unemployed counterparts. MS was also more common in people in the second lowest wealth quintile (OR 1.6, CI: 1.2–2.2;  P  = 0.05) compared to the lowest quintile and in those who sat for more than six hours per day (OR 1.3, CI: 1.1-1.7;  P  = 0.035).  Conclusion:  One in four adults had MS in Oman. This may fuel the epidemic of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in Oman, particularly given the increasingly elderly population. Urgent action is required to ensure quality patient care at all levels of the healthcare system. Further research on behavioural risk factors is needed. Developing and implementing a multisectoral strategy to prevent NCDs should be at the top of the current health agenda for Oman.

/pdf/metabolic-syndrome-and-its-components-secondary-analysis-of-4eoybsxc2g.pdf

Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components: Secondary analysis of the World Health Survey, Oman.

Drawing from a sample of 1365 ever-married nonpregnant women in Oman who underwent a gynecological examination and laboratory tests as part of the 2000 National Health Survey this study examines the prevalence of and risk factors associated with reproductive morbidities among women in Oman. Of the respondents 4 percent had a sexually transmitted infection (STI) 25 percent had a reproductive tract infection (RTI) 10 percent suffered from genital prolapse and 11 percent had a urinary tract infection (UTI). Younger women were two times more likely than older women to have an STI. More empowered women were more likely to have any RTI. Women with six or more children were more than three times more likely to have experienced genital prolapse compared with those who had fewer children. UTIs were significantly associated with urban residence being empowered and having six or more children. A comparative analysis with other countries in the Arab world showed some variations in prevalence and riskfactors. In light of the wide prevalence of reproductive morbidities reproductive health services in Oman should be strengthened. (authors)

The prevalence of and risk factors for reproductive morbidities among women in Oman.

ational health surveys depend commonly on data collected through self-administered questionnaires due to the privilege of its lower costs. 1 In several studies, self-reported data was compared with medical records, disease registries, or the results of clinical and laboratory investigations. Some authors evaluate the accuracy of self-reporting for both people who responded positively and people who responded negatively to a specific question regarding chronic disease, whereas others limit their investigation to the positive responders or to people who have the condition according to medical records or clinical examination. Certain patient’s characteristics are presumed to influence the accuracy of self-reported data. In several studies, the associations have been examined between gender, age and educational level. 2 The aim of the present study is to investigate the accuracy of Omani subjects’ on self-reporting of diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension as compared with the diagnosis of these diseases according to the pre-set criteria; and to examine whether certain subject’s characteristics influence the accuracy of self-reporting of these chronic diseases in a community based survey (National Health Survey, 2000). The survey adopted a multi-stage, stratified probability-sampling design representing the 10 regions of the Sultanate of Oman according to proportional allocation of the population size in each region. Sixteen willayates were selected out of 59 (27%). The total number of households selected was 1968 with a total of 7011 subjects aged >20 years. The response rate varies from 77.5-91.5% according to physical or laboratory measurement. Five thousand four hundred and thirty-one Omani subjects were subjected to data analysis to test the accuracy of self-reporting of DM and 6414 were subjected to data analysis to test the accuracy of self-reportin g of hypertension. The tools used in the survey were Household Health Status questionnaire, which covers the demographic data and includes self-reporting of DM, hypertension. Measurements of blood pressure (BP), weight, height, waist and hip circumference were registered in the questionnaire. The World Health Organization (WHO) procedures were used for taking the measurements. 3 The questionnaire also included items for the results of laboratory investigations taken from fasting blood sugar, and serum cholesterol. The WHO criteria (1999) for diagnosis of hypertension, and glucose intolerance was adopted. 3 Prevalence of hypertension was estimated based on adding the subjects with self-reporting of

Accuracy of self-reporting of diabetes mellitus and hypertension and its determinants among Omani adults

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