Infectious diseases account for more than 20% of global mortality and viruses are responsible for about one-third of these deaths. Highly infectious viral diseases such as severe acute respiratory (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are emerging more frequently and their worldwide spread poses a serious threat to human health and the global economy. The current COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of 27 July 2020, SARS-CoV-2 has infected over 16 million people and led to the death of more than 652,434 individuals as on 27 July 2020 while also causing significant economic losses. To date, there are no vaccines or specific antiviral drugs to prevent or treat COVID-19. Hence, it is necessary to accelerate the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines to help mitigate this pandemic. Non-Conventional antiviral agents must also be considered and exploited. In this regard, nanoparticles can be used as antiviral agents for the treatment of various viral infections. The use of nanoparticles provides an interesting opportunity for the development of novel antiviral therapies with a low probability of developing drug resistance compared to conventional chemical-based antiviral therapies. In this review, we first discuss viral mechanisms of entry into host cells and then we detail the major and important types of nanomaterials that could be used as antiviral agents. These nanomaterials include silver, gold, quantum dots, organic nanoparticles, liposomes, dendrimers and polymers. Further, we consider antiviral mechanisms, the effects of nanoparticles on coronaviruses and therapeutic approaches of nanoparticles. Finally, we provide our perspective on the future of nanoparticles in the fight against viral infections.

Antiviral Potential of Nanoparticles-Can Nanoparticles Fight Against Coronaviruses?

Nano-lipoidal carriers of tretinoin with enhanced percutaneous absorption, photostability, biocompatibility and anti-psoriatic activity

Piroxicam is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and other inflammatory diseases. Upon oral administration, it is reported to cause ulcerative colitis, gastrointestinal irritation, edema and peptic ulcer. Hence, an alternative delivery system has been designed in the form of transethosome. The present study describes the preparation, optimization, characterization, and ex vivo study of piroxicam-loaded transethosomal gel using the central composite design. On the basis of the prescreening study, the concentration of lipids and ethanol was kept in the range of 2–4% w/v and 0–40% v/v, respectively. Formulation was optimized by measuring drug retention in the skin, drug permeation, entrapment efficiency, and vesicle size. Optimized formulation was incorporated in hydrogel and compared with other analogous vesicular (liposomes, ethosomes, and transfersomes) gels for the aforementioned responses. Among the various lipids used, soya phosphatidylcholine (SPL 70) and ethanol in various percentages were found to affect drug retention in the skin, drug permeation, vesicle size, and entrapment efficiency. The optimized batch of transethosome has shown 392.730 μg cm−2 drug retention in the skin, 44.312 μg cm−2 h−1 drug permeation, 68.434% entrapment efficiency, and 655.369 nm vesicle size, respectively. It was observed that the developed transethosomes were found superior in all the responses as compared to other vesicular formulations with improved stability and highest elasticity. Similar observations were noted with its gel formulation.

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Systematic Development of Transethosomal Gel System of Piroxicam: Formulation Optimization, In Vitro Evaluation, and Ex Vivo Assessment

Systematically optimized biocompatible isotretinoin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for topical treatment of acne.

Background Herpes Simplex (HSV) viruses are widely spread, highly contagious human pathogens. The statistics indicate that 50-90% of adults worldwide are seropositive for these viruses, mainly HSV-1 and HSV-2. The primary infection results in the appearance of watery blisters (cold sores) on the skin, lips, tongue, buccal mucosa or genitals. The ocular infection is the major cause of corneal blindness in the Western World. Once the HSV virus enters human body, it cannot be completely eradicated because HSV viruses are able to change into their latent form which can survive the treatment. The viron resides in trigeminal ganglia of the host, who becomes vulnerable to the reoccurrence of the disease during the whole lifespan. The neurotropic and neuro-invasive properties of HSV are responsible for neurodegenerative illnesses, such as Alzheimer's disease. Acyclovir and its analogues, being the inhibitors of the viral DNA replication, are the only approved medicines for HSV infection therapies. Objective The current paper presents the up-to-date overview of the important pharmacological features of acyclovir, its analogues and their delivery systems including the mechanism of action, routes of administration, absorption and metabolism, as well as side effects of the therapy. Conclusion Acyclovir remains the gold standard in the treatment of herpes virus infections, mainly due to the emerging of the new delivery systems improving considerably its bioavailability. The analogues of acyclovir, especially their esters, characterized by significantly higher bioavailability and safety, may gradually replace acyclovir in selected applications.

Acyclovir in the Treatment of Herpes Viruses - A Review.

Despite marked antipsoriatic activity of dithranol (anthralin), the drug is quite infrequently employed in therapeutic practice owing to its strong propensity to cause skin problems like irritation, erythema and peeling, and potential formulation problems like photolability and high lipophilicity. Accordingly, it was planned to systematically formulate optimized dithranol-loaded emulsomes with enhanced biocompatibility, efficacy and stability. Emulsomes were prepared by a thin film hydration technique and optimized for composition using formulation by design (FbD). The optimized dithranol-loaded emulsomes were found to substantially enhance the antipsoriatic activity on a mouse-tail model vis-a `-vis marketed product. Also, the selected composition offered enhanced drug permeation and marked skin retention. The formulation was found to be quite non-irritant, stable and biocompatible in comparison to the marketed product. The present findings establish the usefulness of lipid-based colloidal carriers to increase the stability, and enhance the efficacy and patient compliance of an age-old irritant dithranol.

Improved therapeutic performance of dithranol against psoriasis employing systematically optimized nanoemulsomes

The present investigation focuses on the development and evaluation of acyclovir-loaded flexible membrane vesicles (ACY-FMVs) and evaluates their targeting potential to localize the drug into skin layers. The drug-loaded FMVs were prepared by thin-film hydration method and characterized for various attributes including micromeritics, entrapment efficiency, vesicle shape, size, and degree of deformability. The values of particle size and zeta potential of the developed carrier system were found to be 453.7 nm and − 11.62 mV, respectively. The system was further incorporated into a hydrogel and evaluated for skin permeability and retention characteristics in comparison to marketed formulation. The developed formulation demonstrated enhanced retention of drug deep inside the skin layers which can probably decrease the frequency of application of the drug, thereby reducing its adverse effects. Skin irritancy studies performed on Laca mice skin proved the safety and non-irritant nature of ACY-FMVs. The pharmacodynamic studies on murine model for HSV-1 infection demonstrated immense potential and safety of topically applied ACY-FMVs. However, more intensive studies need to be pursued to explore and exploit the potential of lipid-based systems in anti-viral therapeutics. These preclinical findings provide a hope for corroborating the efficacy in clinical situations.

Fabrication of acyclovir-loaded flexible membrane vesicles (FMVs): evidence of preclinical efficacy of antiviral activity in murine model of cutaneous HSV-1 infection.

Acne is one of the most common skin diseases affecting majority of the teens and reaching its pinnacle during adulthood. In certain severe cases, it mounts to pronounced skin deformity. This appears to adversely dampen the self esteem of the affected which can eventually lead to depression and even suicides. The disease invariably diminishes in twenties but in some cases, it might even persist in thirties, forties and beyond and there is no such definite way to predict its spell. Majority of females suffer from mild to moderate acne at some stage of life. Although the pathogenesis still stands unknown, but some of the probable reasons could be: increased sebum production, ductal keratinization, bacterial colonization of the pilosebaceus ducts and inflammation. Effective approach towards the treatment of acne primarily rests on thorough understanding of its pathogenesis. An indispensable factor demanding consideration for its treatment is personal and family history. Apart from genetic makeup, food habits also affect the severity of the disease. This review will lay emphasis on a brief disease pathogenesis underlined in the very disease and its impact on life.

Acne: An understanding of the disease and its impact on life

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Improved therapeutic performance of dithranol against psoriasis employing systematically optimized nanoemulsomes

Fabrication of acyclovir-loaded flexible membrane vesicles (FMVs): evidence of preclinical efficacy of antiviral activity in murine model of cutaneous HSV-1 infection.

Acne: An understanding of the disease and its impact on life