The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook.

Desalination technologies improve water quality, greatly reduce water shortage problems, and improve quality of life and economic status. Two main technologies are currently used in water desalination: thermal (phase-change) processes and membrane processes. The primary thermal distillation processes include multistage flash distillation (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), and vapor compression (VC). The VC process encompasses two types: mechanical (MVC) and thermal (TVC). The common membrane desalination processes include reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED and EDR). Energy cost, operational and maintenance cost, and capital investment are the main contributors to the water production cost of any of these processes. The energy cost is responsible for about 50% of the produced water cost. For thermal distillation processes (MSF, MED, and TVC), two energy forms are required for the operation: (1) low-temperature heat, which represents the main portion of the energy input and is usually supplied to the system by a number of external sources (e.g., fossil fuel, waste energy, nuclear, solar) and (2) electricity, which is used to drive the system's pumps and other electrical components. For the MVC thermal distillation process, only electricity is needed. For membrane processes (RO and ED), only electricity is required as an energy input. Renewable energy systems such as solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, and geothermal technologies are currently used as energy suppliers for desalination systems. These renewable resources are now a proven technology and remain economically promising for remote regions, where connection to the public electric grid is either not cost effective or feasible, and where water scarcity is severe. As the technologies continue to improve, and as fresh water becomes scarce and fossil fuel energy prices rise, renewable energy desalination becomes more viable economically. The technical features, energy consumption, environmental considerations, and potential of renewable energy use in driving the main desalination processes are reviewed and analyzed in this paper. The current and projected costs of water produced from conventional and renewable-energy-driven processes are discussed and compared.

Energy Consumption and Water Production Cost of Conventional and Renewable-Energy-Powered Desalination Processes

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Energy-water-environment nexus underpinning future desalination sustainability

Water plays an important role in all our day to day activities and its consumption is increasing day by day because of increased living standards of mankind. Some regions of the globe are under severe stress due to water scarcity and pollution. The fresh water needs of mankind can be only satisfied if saline water which is available in plenty is converted to potable water by desalination. Desalination industry has shown increased threats of CO2 emissions and severe environmental impacts. Desalination industry can be made sustainable if they are integrated with renewable energy and if proper brine disposal methods are followed. In this review different desalination units integrated with renewable energy with special emphasis given to solar energy is discussed. The problems associated with desalination units and their remedies have been presented. Apart from this some novel methods of desalination process has also been explained. This review will allow the researchers to choose appropriate desalination technology for further development.

A review of solar energy driven desalination technologies

Researchers have recently focused on the advancement of new materials from biorenewable and sustainable sources because of great concerns about the environment, waste accumulation and destruction, and the inevitable depletion of fossil resources. Biorenewable materials have been extensively used as a matrix or reinforcement in many applications. In the development of innovative methods and materials, composites offer important advantages because of their excellent properties such as ease of fabrication, higher mechanical properties, high thermal stability, and many more. Especially, nanocomposites (obtained by using biorenewable sources) have significant advantages when compared to conventional composites. Nanocomposites have been utilized in many applications including food, biomedical, electroanalysis, energy storage, wastewater treatment, automotive, etc. This comprehensive review provides chemistry, structures, advanced applications, and recent developments about nanocomposites obtained from biorenewable sources.

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Chemistry, Structures, and Advanced Applications of Nanocomposites from Biorenewable Resources.

Techno-economic assessment and environmental impacts of desalination technologies

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Techno-economic assessment and environmental impacts of desalination technologies