Social Emergence: Societies as Complex Systems

The semantic turn: a new foundation for design, by Klaus Krippendorff, 2005, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp. 304, £44.99, hardback (ISBN 0 415 32220 0) The Semantic Turn: A New Foundation ...

The semantic turn: A new foundation for design

This review integrates 4 major approaches to the study of science—histo rical accounts of scientific discoveries, psychological experiments with nonscientists working on tasks related to scientific discoveries, direct observation of ongoing scientific laboratories, and computational modeling of scientific discovery processes—by viewing them through the lens of the theory of human problem solving. The authors provide a brief justification for the study of scientific discovery, a summary of the major approaches, and criteria for comparing and contrasting them. Then, they apply these criteria to the different approaches and indicate their complementarities. Finally, they provide several examples of convergent principles of the process of scientific discovery. The central thesis of this article is that although research on scientific discovery has taken many different paths, these paths show remarkable convergence on key aspects of the discovery processes, allowing one to aspire to a general theory of scientific discovery. This convergence is often obscured by the disparate cultures, research methodologies, and theoretical foundations of the various disciplines that study scientific discovery, including history and sociology as well as those within the cognitive sciences (e.g., psychology, philosophy, and artificial intelligence). Despite these disciplinary differences, common concepts and terminology can express the central ideas and findings about scientific discovery from the various disciplines, treating discovery as a particular species of human problem solving. Moreover, we may be able to use these concepts and this vocabulary over an even broader domain to converge toward a common account of discovery in many areas of human endeavor: practical, scientific, and artistic, occurring both in everyday life and in specialized technical and professional domains. The doing of science has long attracted the attention of philosophers, historians, anthropologists, and sociologists. More recently, psychologists also have begun to turn their attention to the phenomena of scientific thinking, and there is now a large and rapidly growing literature on the psychology of science. (A good description of the field in its infancy can be found in Tweney, Doherty, & Mynatt, 1981, and a recent summary of topics and findings from investigations of the developmental, personality, cognitive, and social psychology of science can be found in Feist & Gorman, 1998). Our review links four major approaches to the study of science—historical accounts of scientific discoveries, laboratory experiments with nonscientists working on tasks related to scientific discoveries, direct observation of ongoing scientific laboratories, and computational modeling of scientific discovery processes—by

Studies of Scientific Discovery: Complementary Approaches and Convergent Findings

Counterfactual quantities representing path-specific effects arise in cases where we are interested in computing the effect of one variable on another only along certain causal paths in the graph (in other words by excluding a set of edges from consideration). A recent paper [Pearl, 2001] details a method by which such an exclusion can be specified formally by fixing the value of the parent node of each excluded edge. In this paper we derive simple, graphical conditions for experimental identifiability of path-specific effects, namely, conditions under which path-specific effects can be estimated consistently from data obtained from controlled experiments.

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Identifiability of path-specific effects

1. Creativity and crime: basic principles 2. The social science approach to crime 3. Basic creativity concepts 4. Creativity: a bundle of paradoxes 5. General enchantment with creativity 6. The dark side of creativity 7. Creativity and crime 8. Consumer and corporate fraud: scams, hustles and swindles 9. Terrorism: a case study 10. Practical implications and countermeasures.

Creativity and Crime: A Psychological Analysis

To address the question “What is the foundation of science?” I base my response on the two substantive constructs of the question: science and foundation.

The Foundation of Science

Some concepts crucial in the contemporary interdisciplinary study of complex systems are reviewed, namely emergent properties of systems, the constructivist role of the observer, and approaches to modeling emergence. Considered is the generalization of boundary conditions to constraints able to induce processes of emergence and acquisition of new and emergent properties within human social systems. A cybernetic and systemic view of architecture is discussed beyond the functional aspects but with an emphasis on the constructivist representation by the observer. In this multi-layered system processes of emergence and acquisition of new properties occur. We propose the study of this system that is inclusive of its architecture, as a specific project able to unify, that is, cohere the various interrelated aspects of an architecture that is inherently part of the system. The human dimension is present in terms of the observer. By means of the cybernetics of architecture that humans experience, they come to know the emergent properties of architecturally designed places and dwellings for human inhabitation. Participation and responsibility for human social systems, inclusive of their architectures, bring into consideration the ethical dimension and its power to induce social emergence, which may be understood as an application of cybernetics to human knowing.

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Architecture as the Cybernetic Self-Design of Boundary Conditions for Emergent Properties in Human Social Systems.

Purpose – The purpose of this article is to expound the view that knowledge of a special kind, which the author terms open knowledge, has a central place in the conduct of human activities at the global level.Design/methodology/approach – The author advances the concept of open knowledge in a global context by examining key constructs in the field, such as knowledge, management, learning and complexification, considering some consequences and implications, and applying his personal experience, interpretations, and insights.Findings – The paper finds that this particular kind of knowledge, open knowledge, is becoming increasingly important due to operational complexities associated with global outreach. Appearance of and application of open knowledge brings consequential modifications of familiar and established local‐regional managerial practices.Originality/value – The author expounds the concept of open knowledge which is “knowledge proven useful regardless of field of study and discipline to know how b...

/pdf/knowledge-management-and-learning-when-the-context-of-the-3mite1emcl.pdf

Knowledge, management, and learning when the context of the organization is planetary

This paper explores openness—and a central concept in the theory of human activity systems—and applies this concept to the design of educational systems. After describing a hierarchy which includes five levels of openness, the authors present an argument for more open models of education which are necessary to match the complexities of contemporary life.

Openness in a General Process Model for Systems Design in Education

From General Systems Theory, the open systems concept is re-examined introducing a hierarchy based on context, modeling communication and meta relation, and the concept of kinds of openness. A hierarchy is proposed in one kind of openness: logical. Logical openness is described and a dialectical, dynamic view is proposed in place of the static view. A system fluctuates in time between closed and open. The ability to decide is at the upper level of the hierarchy of openness, which we term the reflexive level. The levels of the hierarchy are discussed.

Correspondence logical openness in systems

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