The world is not on track to meet Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 to provide universal access to safely managed drinking water by 2030. Removal of priority microbial contaminants by disinfection is one aspect of ensuring water is safely managed. Passive chlorination (also called in-line chlorination) represents one approach to disinfecting drinking water before or at the point of collection (POC), without requiring daily user input or electricity. In contrast to manual household chlorination methods typically implemented at the point of use (POU), passive chlorinators can reduce the user burden for chlorine dosing and enable treatment at scales ranging from communities to small municipalities. In this review, we synthesized evidence from 27 evaluations of passive chlorinators (in 19 articles, 3 NGO reports, and 5 theses) conducted across 16 countries in communities, schools, health care facilities, and refugee camps. Of the 27 passive chlorinators we identified, the majority (22/27) were solid tablet or granular chlorine dosers, and the remaining devices were liquid chlorine dosers. We identified the following research priorities to address existing barriers to scaled deployment of passive chlorinators: (i) strengthening local chlorine supply chains through decentralized liquid chlorine production, (ii) validating context-specific business models and financial sustainability, (iii) leveraging remote monitoring and sensing tools to monitor real-time chlorine levels and potential system failures, and (iv) designing handpump-compatible passive chlorinators to serve the many communities reliant on handpumps as a primary drinking water source. We also propose a set of reporting indicators for future studies to facilitate standardized evaluations of the technical performance and financial sustainability of passive chlorinators. In addition, we discuss the limitations of chlorine-based disinfection and recognize the importance of addressing chemical contamination in drinking water supplies. Passive chlorinators deployed and managed at-scale have the potential to elevate the quality of existing accessible and available water services to meet “safely managed” requirements.

/pdf/passive-in-line-chlorination-for-drinking-water-disinfection-1lzavacq.pdf

Passive In-Line Chlorination for Drinking Water Disinfection: A Critical Review

Recontamination during transport and storage is a common challenge of water supply in low-income settings, especially if water is collected manually. Chlorination is a strategy to reduce recontamination. We assessed seven low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices in gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) kiosks in eastern Uganda: one floater, two in-line dosers, three end-line dosers (tap-attached), and one manual dispenser. The evaluation criteria were dosing consistency, user-friendliness, ease of maintenance, local supply chain, and cost. Achieving an adequate chlorine dosage (∼2 mg/L at the tap and ≥ 0.2 mg/L after 24 h of storage in a container) was challenging. The T-chlorinator was the most promising option for GDM kiosks: it achieved correct dosage (CD, 1.5–2.5 mg/L) with a probability of 90 per cent, was easy to use and maintain, economical, and can be made from locally available materials. The other in-line option, the chlorine-dosing bucket (40 per cent CD) still needs design improvements. The end-line options AkvoTur (67 per cent CD) and AquatabsFlo® (57 per cent CD) are easy to install and operate at the tap, but can be easily damaged in the GDM set-up. The Venturi doser (52 per cent CD) did not perform satisfactorily with flow rates > 6 L/min. The chlorine dispenser (52 per cent CD) was robust and user-friendly, but can only be recommended if users comply with chlorinating the water themselves. Establishing a sustainable supply chain for chlorine products was challenging. Where solid chlorine tablets were locally rarely available, the costs of liquid chlorine options were high (27–162 per cent of the water price).

/pdf/assessment-of-low-cost-non-electrically-powered-chlorination-11sk4hhtmc.pdf

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

/pdf/water-quality-and-sustainability-assessment-of-rural-water-13svw0afwz.pdf

Water Quality and Sustainability Assessment of Rural Water Systems in the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé, Panama

Financially sustainable strategies are needed to increase access to safe drinking water in low-income settings. We designed a novel in-line chlorine doser that employs the Venturi principle to automatically add liquid chlorine at the point of water collection (tap outflows). The Venturi does not require electricity or moving parts, and users do not have to change the way they typically collect water. We field-tested the Venturi and assessed its technical performance and sales viability at water kiosks in Kisumu County, Kenya. We offered kiosk owners 6-month service packages to lease or lease-to-own the device; 27% of kiosks given a sales pitch committed to a service package. All but one kiosk paid in full during the 6-month service period and more than two-thirds purchased the device with payments totaling >$250 USD per kiosk. Kiosk customers could choose to purchase chlorinated or unchlorinated water from separate taps; 66% reported buying chlorinated water. Kiosk taps fitted with the Venturi had detectable free chlorine residual 97.6% of the time. The technical performance of the Venturi and effective demand from kiosks indicate high potential for the Venturi to increase safe water access in low-income communities.

/pdf/design-performance-and-demand-for-a-novel-in-line-chlorine-29olep81gk.pdf

Design, performance, and demand for a novel in-line chlorine doser to increase safe water access

Deploying passive (in-line) chlorinators is one strategy for improving access to microbially safe drinking water without requiring electricity or daily user input. Using Joint Monitoring Programme data, we calculate the population in low- and middle-income countries (n = 135 LMICs) using drinking water sources that are compatible (piped water and kiosks) or potentially compatible (packaged and/or delivered water, rainwater, boreholes and/or tube wells, and protected springs) with passive chlorinators. Leveraging water quality data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (n = 37 LMICs), we estimate that 2.32 [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.19, 2.46] billion people use microbially contaminated water sources that are compatible [1.51 (1.42, 1.60) billion] or potentially compatible [817 (776, 858) million] with passive chlorinators. The largest target market for passive chlorinators is in South Asia [551 (532, 571) million rural users and 401 (384, 417) million urban users], where >77% of compatible drinking water sources are contaminated. However, self-reported household water treatment practices (n = 54 LMICs) indicate that chlorination is more common in the African and Latin American regions, suggesting passive chlorination would have higher acceptance in these regions than in Asia. Reaching the full potential of passive chlorinators will require establishing compatability of technologies with hand pump chlorination and identifying financially viable implementation models. 

Estimating the Global Target Market for Passive Chlorination

An in-line PVC chlorinator can be an appropriate water disinfection technology to inactivate pathogens and improve water quality in community-managed water supply systems Free chlorine residual was measured at five locations after the insertion of one chlorine tablet into an in-line PVC chlorinator and, in a second experiment, after the insertion of three chlorine tablets The Ct (concentration × time) method for disinfection was used to compare the measured free chlorine residual with the residual required to inactivate a recommended percentage of common pathogens found in gravity-flow water systems in the developing world The two operating conditions, each with a contact time of 566 minutes, had a free chlorine residual required to disinfect all viruses and bacteria considered in this study but not above the 027 mg/L needed to inactivate the protozoa Giardia lamblia, a common pathogen in developing countries that causes diarrhoea The research suggests that an in-line PVC chlorinator can be a simple

Effectiveness of in-line chlorination in a developing world gravity-flow water supply

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Effectiveness of in-line chlorination in a developing world gravity-flow water supply