SUMMARY The availability and salience of object attributes under haptic exploration, with and without vision, were assessed by two tasks in which subjects sorted objects that varied factorially in size, shape, texture, and hardness. In the directed-discrimination task, subjeets were instructed to sort along a particular dimension. Although levels on all dimensions were easily discriminated, shape was relatively less so for haptic explorers without vision, as was hardness for those using vision and haptics. Size was least discriminable for both groups. In thefiee-sorting task, subjects were to sort objects by similarity. Three groups used haptic exploration only; these were differentiated by the experimenters' definition of object similarity: unbiased haptics (no particular definition of similarity), haptically biased hapties (similarity = objects feel similar), haptics plus visual imagery (similarity = objects' visual inmges are similar). A fourth group used vision as well as haptics, with instructions like those of the unbiased haptics group. Dimensional salience was measured by the extent to which levels on a dimension were differentiated in free sorting (more differentiation indicating higher salience). The unbiased haptics and haptically biased haptics groups were highly similar; both found the substance dimensions (hardness and texture) relatively salient. The haptics plus visual imagery group showed shape to be overwhelmingly salient, even more so when they were instructed to use two hands, but less so when they had just seen the objects. The haptics plus vision group showed salience to be more evenly distributed over the dimensions. Exploratory hand movements were videotaped and scored into four categories of exploratory procedure (I.,derman & Klatzky, 1987): lateral motion, pressure, contour following, and enclosure (related to texture, hardness, shape, and size, respectively). The distribution of exploratory procedures was found to be directly related to both the designated dimension in the directed-discrimination task, and the salient dimension in the free-sorting task. The results support our contention that the haptic and visual systems have distinct encoding pathways, with haptics oriented toward the encoding of substance rather than shape. This may reflect a direct influence of haptic exploratory procedures: The procedures that are executed under unbiased haptic encoding are those that are generally found to be rapid and accurate (high "ease of encoding"), and the execution of these procedures determines which object properties become salient.

/pdf/there-s-more-to-touch-than-meets-the-eye-the-salience-of-st8rqeeifw.pdf

There's more to touch than meets the eye: The salience of object attributes for haptics with and without vision.

The theory of embodied cognition can provide HCI practitioners and theorists with new ideas about interaction and new principles for better designs. I support this claim with four ideas about cognition: (1) interacting with tools changes the way we think and perceive -- tools, when manipulated, are soon absorbed into the body schema, and this absorption leads to fundamental changes in the way we perceive and conceive of our environments; (2) we think with our bodies not just with our brains; (3) we know more by doing than by seeing -- there are times when physically performing an activity is better than watching someone else perform the activity, even though our motor resonance system fires strongly during other person observation; (4) there are times when we literally think with things. These four ideas have major implications for interaction design, especially the design of tangible, physical, context aware, and telepresence systems.

/pdf/embodied-cognition-and-the-magical-future-of-interaction-1m03lixon3.pdf

Embodied cognition and the magical future of interaction design

The ability of sighted, blindfolded individuals to navigate while walking was assessed in two types of tasks, one requiring knowledge of a route that previously had been navigated and another requiring more complex spatial inference or computation. A computerized measurement system monitored spatial position. The route tasks included maintenance of a heading, distance and turn reproduction and estimation, and turn production. The inferential task required completion of a multisegment pathway by returning directly to the origin. Pathways were replicated at two different scales. Measures for the route-knowledge tasks indicated a substantial ability to navigate in the absence of visual cues. Route reproduction performance was particularly accurate despite intrinsic veering tendencies. A substantial increase in error was observed in the pattern-completion task. Errors in pathway completion increased with pathway complexity and were quite similar at the two scales. Correlational data suggested that performance...

Acquisition of Route and Survey Knowledge in the Absence of Vision

Vibrotactile displays covering the torso present spatial information in an intuitive way since the stimuli are directly mapped to the body coordinates; left is left, front is front, etc. The present study investigated the direction in the horizontal plane to which a specific torso location is mapped using a 15 tactor linear display. Participants indicated the observed external direction of a localized vibration by positioning a remotely controlled cursor. The results show that the observed direction is toward the midsagittal plane (i.e. the navel or the spine) compared to the tactor direction. This bias is consistent over the observers tested, and up to 10° for the oblique directions. Inspection of the response patterns revealed that observers did not use the body midaxis as the origin for the observed direction, but used two spatially separated internal reference points, one for each body half. Therefore, the use of a torso-related transfer function in applications that require a high level of precision is suggested. The variability of the responses also depends on the tactor direction. It is higher for the left-right direction and lower for the fore-aft direction, which may be caused by the spine and navel acting as anchor points. The present results are relevant for tactile navigation displays

Presenting directions with a vibrotactile torso display.

This paper surveys the research literature on robust tactile and haptic illusions. The illusions are organized into two categories. The first category relates to objects and their properties, and is further differentiated in terms of haptic processing of material versus geometric object properties. The second category relates to haptic space, and is further differentiated in terms of the observer's own body versus external space. The illusions are initially described and where possible addressed in terms of their functional properties and/or underlying neural processes. The significance of these illusions for the design of tactile and haptic displays is also discussed. We conclude by briefly considering a number of important general themes that have emerged in the materials surveyed.

Tactile and Haptic Illusions

In Experiment 1, blindfolded observers judged (a) the distance of pathways felt by hand and (b) the straight-line distance between pathway endpoints inferred from such exploration. In Experiment 2, blindfolded observers made corresponding estimates after traversing similar pathways on foot. Pathways were explored under three different speeds. Under both manipulatory and ambulatory exploration, there was substantial length distortion of inferred distance: The straight-line distance was increasingly overestimated with increases in the length of the explored pathway. With manipulatory exploration, slower movements increased length distortion, but duration effects proved secondary to effects of spatial extent. For ambulatory exploration, no duration effects were obtained. Observers used time-independent heuristics, that is, a footstep metric for estimating the pathway actually travelled and a spatial imaging strategy for estimating the inferred line between pathway endpoints. The studies establish length distortion as a general phenomenon in movement space and identify its major causes as spatial rather than temporal.

/pdf/exploring-environments-by-hand-or-foot-time-based-heuristics-adbw0tk4k4.pdf

Exploring Environments by Hand or Foot: Time-Based Heuristics for Encoding Distance in Movement Space

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Exploring Environments by Hand or Foot: Time-Based Heuristics for Encoding Distance in Movement Space