抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

The repair of wounds is one of the most complex biological processes that occur during human life. After an injury, multiple biological pathways immediately become activated and are synchronized to respond. In human adults, the wound repair process commonly leads to a non-functioning mass of fibrotic tissue known as a scar. By contrast, early in gestation, injured fetal tissues can be completely recreated, without fibrosis, in a process resembling regeneration. Some organisms, however, retain the ability to regenerate tissue throughout adult life. Knowledge gained from studying such organisms might help to unlock latent regenerative pathways in humans, which would change medical practice as much as the introduction of antibiotics did in the twentieth century.

/pdf/wound-repair-and-regeneration-1rzgi7hifn.pdf

Wound repair and regeneration

During the course of purifying nerve growth factor from the submaxillary gland of the mouse, Cohen (1960) and Levi-Montalcini and Cohen (1960) noticed that daily injections of certain gland extract fractions into newborn mice produced developmental changes that could not be ascribed to nerve growth factor. These changes included precocious opening of the eyelids (7 days compared to the usual 14 days) and a similar early eruption of the incisors. Using these gross anatomical changes as an assay, Cohen (1962) proceeded to isolate the active factor — a polypeptide which he termed epidermal growth factor (EGF).

Epidermal growth factor

In the early 19th century, building on observations of microscopists now ancient, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the doctrine that cells are building blocks for plant and animal tissues (1). By the mid-19th century, Raspail, Remak, and Virchow expanded this hypothesis by suggesting that all cells come from preexisting cells — the so-called cell theory. Although referring to cell division, this now classic notion is prescient of another contemporary twist in the biology of cell maturation: beyond lineage development and normal differentiation, mature epithelial cells under new environmental pressures exhibit a local plasticity that allows them to morph into other mature phenotypes with or without proliferation (2, 3). Growing interest in the biology of these cellular transitions helped both establish epithelial cell plasticity as a field of study in the late 20th century and fashion much of the current thinking regarding morphogenesis in early embryonic development, tissue repair, and cancer metastasis (4–6). The details of some of these processes are not discussed here, as they are outlined in other articles in this Review Series on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (7, 8). Instead, we offer a personal view gathered from our own experience and the literature regarding an approach documenting EMT events in culture or tissue. We hope this serves to stimulate other points of view as new data emerge.

/pdf/biomarkers-for-epithelial-mesenchymal-transitions-4rugbye0ja.pdf

Biomarkers for epithelial-mesenchymal transitions

Inflammation in wound repair: molecular and cellular mechanisms.

Stimulation of corneal endothelial cell proliferation in vitro by fibroblast and epidermal growth factors

Junqueira's basic histology , Junqueira's basic histology , فهرست آنلاین کتابخانه های دانشگاه علوم پزشکی و خدمات بهداشتی درمانی مشهد

Junqueira's Basic Histology

This review provides a concise summary of the changing phenotypes of macrophages and fibroblastic cells during the local inflammatory response, the onset of tissue repair, and the resolution of inflammation which follow injury to an organ. Both cell populations respond directly to damage and present coordinated sequences of activation states which determine the reparative outcome, ranging from true regeneration of the organ to fibrosis and variable functional deficits. Recent work with mammalian models of organ regeneration, including regeneration of full-thickness skin, hair follicles, ear punch tissues, and digit tips, is summarized and the roles of local immune cells in these systems are discussed. New investigations of the early phase of amphibian limb and tail regeneration, including the effects of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory agents, are then briefly discussed, focusing on the transition from the normally covert inflammatory response to the initiation of the regeneration blastema by migrating fibroblasts and the expression of genes for limb patterning.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/reg2.77

Macrophages and fibroblasts during inflammation and tissue repair in models of organ regeneration.

Formation of a regeneration blastema on the amputated urodele limb involves changes in the gene activity of differentiated cells resulting in their histological dedifferentiation and their return to a proliferative state. This review summarizes studies in limb regeneration and in the related fields of tissue repair and limb development that provide new insights into regulatory mechanisms of likely importance in establishing the blastema. Factors required for epithelialization of the wound are briefly described, followed by what is known regarding the biochemistry of extracellular matrix remodeling in the regenerating limb. Cellular "dedifferentiation" is discussed, emphasizing variations in the process among major cell types that give rise to the blastema: fibroblasts, cells of skeletal tissue, muscle cells, Schwann cells, and vascular endothelial cells. Attention is drawn to evidence that cells of connective tissue have a special role in establishing the prepattern of the new limb in the early phase of blastema formation and that angiogenesis may be controlled differently during epimorphic regeneration than in the process of wound repair. Several possible sources of the mitogens which stimulate cell cycle re-entry during dedifferentiation are described, as well as evidence suggesting the importance in limb regeneration of one such class of mitogens, the fibroblast growth factors. The trophic effect of nerves required for cells of dedifferentiating tissues to progress through the cell cycle is summarized briefly, along with recent work suggesting how this neural influence is exerted. Finally, the critical role of the wound epithelium in the cellular events forming the blastema and factors that may mediate the epithelial effect are discussed.

/pdf/the-cellular-basis-of-limb-regeneration-in-urodeles-3bguhmyy6a.pdf

The cellular basis of limb regeneration in urodeles

The role of fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor in the proliferative response of the corneal and lens epithelium

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