The authors report a systematic meta-analytic review of the relationships among 3 of the most widely studied measures of children's phonological skills (phonemic awareness, rime awareness, and verbal short-term memory) and children's word reading skills The review included both extreme group studies and correlational studies with unselected samples (235 studies were included, and 995 effect sizes were calculated) Results from extreme group comparisons indicated that children with dyslexia show a large deficit on phonemic awareness in relation to typically developing children of the same age (pooled effect size estimate: -137) and children matched on reading level (pooled effect size estimate: -057) There were significantly smaller group deficits on both rime awareness and verbal short-term memory (pooled effect size estimates: rime skills in relation to age-matched controls, -093, and reading-level controls, -037; verbal short-term memory skills in relation to age-matched controls, -071, and reading-level controls, -009) Analyses of studies of unselected samples showed that phonemic awareness was the strongest correlate of individual differences in word reading ability and that this effect remained reliable after controlling for variations in both verbal short-term memory and rime awareness These findings support the pivotal role of phonemic awareness as a predictor of individual differences in reading development We discuss whether such a relationship is a causal one and the implications of research in this area for current approaches to the teaching of reading and interventions for children with reading difficulties

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/138/2/322.pdf

Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review.

Very few studies have directly compared reading acquisition across different orthographies. The authors examined the concurrent and longitudinal predictors of word decoding and reading fluency in children learning to read in an orthographically inconsistent language (English) and in an orthographically consistent language (Greek). One hundred ten English-speaking children and 70 Greek-speaking children attending Grade 1 were examined in measures of phonological awareness, phonological memory, rapid naming speed, orthographic processing, word decoding, and reading fluency. The same children were reassessed on word decoding and reading fluency measures when they were in Grade 2. The results of structural equation modeling indicated that both phonological and orthographic processing contributed uniquely to reading ability in Grades 1 and 2. However, the importance of these predictors was different in the two languages, particularly with respect to their effect on word decoding. The authors argue that the orthography that children are learning to read is an important factor that needs to be taken into account when models of reading development are being generalized across languages.

Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency.

Background: The relationship between phoneme awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term/working memory (ST/WM) and diagnostic category is investigated in control and dyslexic children, and the extent to which this depends on orthographic complexity. Methods: General cognitive, phonological and literacy skills were tested in 1,138 control and 1,114 dyslexic children speaking six different languages spanning a large range of orthographic complexity (Finnish, Hungarian, German, Dutch, French, English). Results: Phoneme deletion and RAN were strong concurrent predictors of developmental dyslexia, while verbal ST/WM and general verbal abilities played a comparatively minor role. In logistic regression models, more participants were classified correctly when orthography was more complex. The impact of phoneme deletion and RAN-digits was stronger in complex than in less complex orthographies. Conclusions: Findings are largely consistent with the literature on predictors of dyslexia and literacy skills, while uniquely demonstrating how orthographic complexity exacerbates some symptoms of dyslexia.

/pdf/predictors-of-developmental-dyslexia-in-european-4qzj2w3ox3.pdf

Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity

Current theoretical interpretations of naming speed and the research literature on its relation to reading are reviewed in this article. The authors examine naming speed's effects across languages and the shape of its relationship to reading. Also considered is the double-deficit hypothesis, by which students with both slow naming speed and low phonological awareness are hypothesized to be most at-risk for reading disability. Finally, the instructional literature regarding attempts to improve naming speed and use of naming speed as a predictor of response to intervention is reviewed. The authors conclude that naming speed is uniquely associated with a range of reading tasks across orthographies, and that early identification would be improved by the inclusion of naming speed measures. The poor response to instruction of students who have slow naming speed should be considered when designing interventions. Further work is required to specify the theoretical nature of naming speed and to determine how to help students with slow naming speed.

لقد تمت مراجعة التفسيرات النظرية الجارية تجاه سرعة التحديد والأبحاث العلمية بشأن علاقتها بالقراءة في هذه المقالة. إذ يفحص المؤلفون تأثيرات سرعة التحديد عبر اللغات وشكل علاقتها بالقراءة. كما تم الأخذ في الاعتبار نظرية النقصان المتضاعف التي تقول لما يجمع البطء في سرعة التحديد والوعي الضعيف في الصوتيات عند الطالب فيفترض أنه في خطر من العجز في القراءة. وفي الختام تمت مراجعة الأبحاث التعليمية المتعلقة بالمساعي في تحسين سرعة التحديد واستخدام سرعة التحديد كمنبئ للإجابة للتدخل. وينتهي المؤلفون إلى أن سرعة التحديد متعلقة بشكل فريد بمدى من واجبات القراءة عبر الخطوط وأن التعريف المبكر سيتحسن من خلال انضمان مقاييس سرعة التحديد. ويفترض أن الاستجابة الضعيفة لتعليم الطلاب الذين يعانون من سرعة التحديد البطيئة أن يأخذهم بعين الاعتبار عند تصميم التدخلات. وهذا يتطلب أكثر جهد لتعريف طبيعة نظرية سرعة التحديد وتعيين كيفية مساعدة الطلاب الذين عندهم سرعة التحديد البطيئة.

本文评审现时有关命名速度的理论解释及命名速度与阅读之关系的文献。作者首先考查在不同的语言中命名速度的影响力及命名速度与阅读之关系的情形；继而探讨双缺失这个假设，也就是命名速度慢及语音意识低的学生最容易有阅读障碍的假设。最后作者评审教学文献，考查提高命名速度及使用命名速度作为干预教学效应预测因子的尝试。作者在结论中指出：在不同的语言表音方式中，命名速度与一系列的阅读学习任务均具有独特的关联；把命名速度评估纳入考核测试中会有助改善命名速度能力的早期鉴定；在设计干预教学时应考虑到命名速度慢的学生对教学反应差的问题；以及有需要进一步研究命名速度的理论性质，及确定帮助命名速度慢的学生的方法。

On analyse dans cet article les interpretations theoriques courantes de la vitesse de denomination et la litterature de recherche concernant ses relations avec la lecture. Les auteurs analysent les effets de la vitesse de lecture a travers les langues et la forme de sa relation a la lecture. On analyse egalement l'hypothese du double deficit selon laquelle les eleves ayant a la fois une vitesse de denomination lente et une conscience phonologique faible sont consideres comme presentant le plus de risques de difficultes en lecture. On analyse enfin la litterature pedagogique sur les essais d'amelioration de la vitesse de lecture et d'utilisation de la vitesse de denomination comme predicteur de la reponse a l'intervention. Les auteurs concluent que la vitesse de denomination est associee uniquement a un ensemble de tâches de lecture liees a l'orthographe, et que l'identification precoce pourrait etre amelioree si elle incluait des evaluations de la vitesse de lecture. Les reponses mediocres des eleves qui ont une vitesse de denomination lente devraient etre prises en consideration lors de la planification des interventions. D'autres travaux sont necessaires pour preciser la nature de la vitesse de denomination sur le plan theorique et pour determiner comment proceder pour aider les eleves qui ont une faible vitesse de denomination.

В статье рассматриваются современные теоретические взгляды на проблему, связанную со скоростью называния предметов, и исследования, посвященные связям подобной проблемы с навыками чтения. Авторы изучают разнообразные проявления этих связей на примере различных языков. Помимо прочего рассматривается гипотеза “двойного дефицита”, согласно которой ученики с низкой скоростью называния предметов и низкой способностью различения звуков считаются наиболее вероятными кандидатами в группу слабо читающих детей. И, наконец, рассматривается учебная литература, где описаны попытки повысить скорость называния предметов, поскольку она принята за индикатор потенциальной реакции на любое вмешательство. Выводы авторов состоят в том, что скорость называния предметов корректируется исключительно сочетанием заданий по чтению и орфографии и такие задания способствуют раннему выявлению проблем с чтением. При планировании учебного вмешательства следует учитывать, с какой скоростью ученики способны называть предметы. Требуются дальнейшие исследования, чтобы окончательно определить теоретическую подоснову этого навыка и характер помощи, в которой нуждаются ученики с низкой скоростью называния предметов.

En este articulo se examinan las interpretaciones teoricas mas recientes de la rapidez de nombrar y la literatura sobre la investigacion en cuanto a su relacion con la lectura. Los autores examinan el efecto de la rapidez de nombrar a traves de los idiomas y la forma en que se relaciona a la lectura. Tambien se examina la hipotesis de la doble deficiencia, la cual considera que los estudiantes lentos al nombrar y de poca conciencia fonologica estan a alto riesgo de tener dificultades con la lectura. Por ultimo, se revisa la literatura instruccional sobre los intentos de mejorar no solo la rapidez de nombrar sino tambien su uso como predictor de dificultades al leer. Los autores llegan a la conclusion que la rapidez de nombrar tiene una relacion especial con una serie de tareas de lectura a traves de las ortografias, y que se mejoraria la identificacion temprana si se incluyeran medidas de la rapidez de nombrar. La poca respuesta a la instruccion de estudiantes de baja rapidez de nombrar se debe tomar en cuenta al disenar intervenciones. Se necesitan mas estudios para especificar la base teorica de la rapidez de nombrar y para determinar como ayudar a los estudiantes con una baja rapidez de nombrar.

Naming Speed and Reading: From Prediction to Instruction

The current study investigated contradictory findings from recent experimental and meta-analytic studies concerning working memory deficits in ADHD. Working memory refers to the cognitive ability to temporarily store and mentally manipulate limited amounts of information for use in guiding behavior. Phonological (verbal) and visuospatial (nonverbal) working memory were assessed across four memory load conditions in 23 boys (12 ADHD, 11 typically developing) using tasks based on Baddeley’s (Working memory, thought, and action, Oxford University Press, New York, 2007) working memory model. The model posits separate phonological and visuospatial storage and rehearsal components that are controlled by a single attentional controller (CE: central executive). A latent variable approach was used to partial task performance related to three variables of interest: phonological buffer/rehearsal loop, visuospatial buffer/rehearsal loop, and the CE attentional controller. ADHD-related working memory deficits were apparent across all three cognitive systems—with the largest magnitude of deficits apparent in the CE—even after controlling for reading speed, nonverbal visual encoding, age, IQ, and SES.

/pdf/working-memory-deficits-in-boys-with-attention-deficit-1aq9appcxc.pdf

Working Memory Deficits in Boys with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): The Contribution of Central Executive and Subsystem Processes

The current study examined several alternative explanations of the association between serial naming speed within fourth-grade children by determining the extent to which the association between word reading and naming speed for letters and numbers is mediated by global processing speed, alphanumeric symbol processing efficiency and phonological processing ability. Children were given multiple measures of key constructs, i.e. word-level reading, serial naming of both alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric items, phonological processing ability, articulation rate and global processing speed. The robust association between alphanumeric naming speed and reading within fourth-grade children was largely mediated by phonological processing ability. Markedly different patterns of results were observed for naming speed for letters and digits and naming speed for colours and pictures in children of this age. Relative to the latter, alphanumeric naming speed better assesses an underlying phonological processing ability that is common to word-reading ability. We argue that item identification processes contribute little to individual differences in alphanumeric naming speed within relatively proficient readers and that the extent to which alphanumeric naming speed primarily reflects phonological processing is likely to vary with the level of overlearning of letters and numbers and their names.

On the association between serial naming speed for letters and digits and word‐reading skill: towards a developmental account

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On the association between serial naming speed for letters and digits and word‐reading skill: towards a developmental account