Preface / Introduction - On art and artists / Strange Beginnings - Prehistoric and primitive peoples Ancient America / Art for Eternity - Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete / The Great Awakening - Greece, seventh to fifth century BC / The Realm of Beauty - Greece and the Greek world, fourth century BC to first century AD / World Conquerors - Romans, Buddhists, Jews and Christians, first to fourth century AD / A Parting of Ways - Rome and Byzantium, fifth to thirteenth century / Looking Eastwards - Islam, China, second to thirteenth century / Western Art in the Melting Pot - Europe, sixth to eleventh century / The Church Militant - The twelfth century / The Church Triumphant - The thirteenth century / Courtiers and Burghers - The fourteenth century / The Conquest of Reality - The early fifteenth century / Tradition and Innovation I - The later fifteenth century in Italy / Tradition and Innovation II - The fifteenth century in the North / Harmony Attained - Tuscany and Rome, early sixteenth century / Light and Colour - Venice and northern Italy, early sixteenth century / The New Learning Spreads - Germany and the Netherlands, early sixteenth century/ A Crisis of Art - Europe, later sixteenth century / Vision and Visions - Catholic Europe, first half of the seventeenth century / The Mirror of Nature - Holland, seventeenth century / Power and Glory I - Italy, later seventeenth and eighteenth centuries / Power and Glory II - France, Germany and Austria, late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries / The Age of Reason - England and France, eighteenth century / The Break in Tradition - England, America and France, late eighteenth century and early nineteenth centuries / Permanent Revolution - The nineteenth century / In Search of New Standards - The late nineteenth century/ Experimental Art - The first half of the twentieth century / A Story Without End - The triumph of Modernism / Another turning of the tide / The changing past/ A note on art books / Chronological charts / List of illustrations by location / Detailed list of illustrations / Index and glossary / Acknowledgements

The Story of Art

This work introduces the complementary use of μ-Raman and μ-Fourier transform infrared (IR) spectroscopy for the detection of specific carbon chains and cations for the identification of metal carboxylates within oil paint microsamples. Metal carboxylates (metal soaps) form naturally when free fatty acids react with metal cations and may also be found as additives or degradation products. Twenty-two metal carboxylates were synthesised, and their spectra assembled in a reference database. Metal salts of cations commonly present in oil paintings were used, including lead, zinc, calcium, cadmium, copper and manganese. The fatty acids selected were the saturated acids palmitic (C16 : 0) and stearic (C18 : 0) and the polyunsaturated oleic acid (C18 : 1). Azelaic acid (C9 diacid), a product resulting from autoxidation of polyunsaturated acids, was also included. Metal carboxylates were characterised by Raman and IR spectroscopy, and their structures were confirmed by X-ray diffraction. Raman and IR spectroscopy proved to be complementary techniques for a full identification of the metal carboxylates in complex aged paint. Raman enables the differentiation of the carbon chain length in the C–C stretching region (1120–1040 cm−1), and IR distinguishes the metal cation in the COO− stretching absorption region (1650–1380 cm−1). Principal component analysis was applied to the spectra in order to facilitate a fast and accurate method to discriminate between the different metal carboxylates and to aide in their identification. Finally, spectra from case studies were successfully projected in the principal component analysis models built, enabling a higher confidence level for the identification of copper palmitate and copper azelate in two 19th-century Portuguese oil paintings. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Characterisation of metal carboxylates by Raman and infrared spectroscopy in works of art

This paper presents an analytical investigation of paint reconstructions prepared with linseed oil that have undergone typical 19th century treatments in preparation for painting. The oil was mechanically extracted from the same seed lot, which was then processed by various methods: water washing, heat treatments, and the addition of driers, with and without heat. A modern process lead white (Dutch source, Schoonhoven) and a commercially available vine black were used as pigments. The reconstructions were prepared in 1999, and naturally aged from then onwards. We compared thermogravimetric analysis (TG), which yields macromolecular information, with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and direct exposure mass spectrometry (DEMS), which both provide molecular information. The study enabled us to quantitatively demonstrate, for the first time, that the parameters used to identify drying oils are deeply influenced by the history of the paint. In particular, here we show that the ratio between the relative amounts of palmitic and stearic acid (P/S), which is used as an index for differentiating between drying oils, is extremely dependent on the pigments present and the age of the paint. Moreover the study revealed that neither the P/S parameter nor the ratios between the relative amounts of the various dicarboxylic acids (azelaic over suberic and azelaic over sebacic) can be used to trace the sorts of pre-treatment undergone by the oil investigated in this study. The final results represent an important milestone for the scientific community working in the field, highlighting that further research is still necessary to solve the identification of drying oils in works of art.

/pdf/new-insights-into-the-ageing-of-linseed-oil-paint-binder-a-3b8ywdd7eh.pdf

New insights into the ageing of linseed oil paint binder: a qualitative and quantitative analytical study.

The drying of linseed oil investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: Historical recipes and influence of lead compounds

Nutritional, structural, functional, and sensorial properties of protein isolate developed from salmon (Salmo salar), cod (Gadus morhua), and herring (Clupea harengus) by-products using the pH-shift method was studied. Function of the proteins in an emulsion system in terms of viscoelastic properties was also evaluated. Regardless of origin, the proteins showed satisfying nutritional value as reflected in their high essential amino acid content. The proteins contained significantly (p < 0.05) higher proportion of active sulfhydryl groups and surface hydrophobicity compared to whey and egg white protein reflecting conformational changes caused by the pH-shift process. Solubility, emulsion, and foaming capacity of the proteins showed a trend similar to soy protein and dependent on their origin. Cod protein had better emulsion and foaming capacity than salmon and herring proteins which was in line with its high surface hydrophobicity and myosin heavy chain content. Emulsions developed from cod and salmon proteins showed substantially better viscoelastic properties, with higher stability and viscosity compared to herring protein emulsions. Cod protein scored low for sensorial attributes related to lipid oxidation while herring protein showed high levels of fishy and rancid flavor and odor. Altogether, results showed that the proteins from fish filleting by-products have potential to be used as food ingredients, but their application would be governed by their origin and sensorial properties.

/pdf/structural-functional-and-sensorial-properties-of-protein-1kr24qphxn.pdf

Structural, functional, and sensorial properties of protein isolate produced from salmon, cod, and herring by-products

Describes the changes in the infrared spectra of oil paint as a result of ageing. The focus is on the influence of pigments on the long term changes in the oil binding medium. Several naturally aged paints made with different pigments were analysed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). One of the most pronounced effects observed in the infrared spectra of ageing paint is the shifting and broadening of the carbonyl band due to the formation of carboxylic acids. Another effect of pigments on the oil binding medium is the catalysis of the hydrolysis of triglycerides, as indicated by the increasing intensity of the ester absorption. Finally, the nature of the pigments included has a profound effect on the CH strength absorptions. From these results it is clear that pigments can significantly alter the infrared spectra of drying oil, and should therefore be identified to ensure correct assessment of the infrared spectra in the drying paint.

FTIR studies of the effects of pigments on the aging of oil

Scanning electron microscopy backscattered-electron images of paint cross sections show the compositional contrast within the paint system. They not only give valuable information about the pigment composition and layer structure but also about the aging processes in the paint. This article focuses on the reading of backscatter images of lead white-containing samples from traditional oil paintings (17th–19th centuries). In contrast to modern lead white, traditional stack process lead white is characterized by a wide particle size distribution. Changes in particle morphology and distribution are indications of chemical/physical reactivity in the paint. Lead white can be affected by free fatty acids to form lead soaps. The dissolution of lead white can be recognized in the backscatter image by gray (less scattering) peripheries around particles and gray amorphous areas as opposed to the well-defined, highly scattering intact lead white particles. The small particles react away first, while the larger particles/lumps can still be visible. Formed lead soaps appear to migrate or diffuse through the semipermeable paint system. Lead-rich bands around particles, at layer interfaces and in the paint medium, are indications of transport. The presence of lead-containing crystals at the paint surface or inside aggregates furthermore point to the migration and mineralization of lead soaps.

SEM backscattered-electron images of paint cross sections as information source for the presence of the lead white pigment and lead-related degradation and migration phenomena in oil paintings.

Characterization of the deterioration of bone black in the 17th century Oranjezaal paintings using electron-microscopic and micro-spectroscopic imaging techniques

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FTIR studies of the effects of pigments on the aging of oil

SEM backscattered-electron images of paint cross sections as information source for the presence of the lead white pigment and lead-related degradation and migration phenomena in oil paintings.

Characterization of the deterioration of bone black in the 17th century Oranjezaal paintings using electron-microscopic and micro-spectroscopic imaging techniques