During the resorbable-polymer-boom of the 1970s and 1980s, polycaprolactone (PCL) was used in the biomaterials field and a number of drug-delivery devices. Its popularity was soon superseded by faster resorbable polymers which had fewer perceived disadvantages associated with long term degradation (up to 3-4 years) and intracellular resorption pathways; consequently, PCL was almost forgotten for most of two decades. Recently, a resurgence of interest has propelled PCL back into the biomaterials-arena. The superior rheological and viscoelastic properties over many of its aliphatic polyester counterparts renders PCL easy to manufacture and manipulate into a large range of implants and devices. Coupled with relatively inexpensive production routes and FDA approval, this provides a promising platform for the production of longer-term degradable implants which may be manipulated physically, chemically and biologically to possess tailorable degradation kinetics to suit a specific anatomical site. This review will discuss the application of PCL as a biomaterial over the last two decades focusing on the advantages which have propagated its return into the spotlight with a particular focus on medical devices, drug delivery and tissue engineering.

The return of a forgotten polymer : Polycaprolactone in the 21st century

Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) (PLA) presents suitable physicochemical properties and biocompatibility for biomedical engineering. However, PLA has some drawbacks, such as low cell adhesion, biological inertness, low degradation rate, and acid degradation by-products. In this review, recent progress on strategies to address these problems is summarized, including novel fabrication techniques, high-performance PLA composites, and their applications for tissue engineering and drug delivery. The scaffolds, especially for bone regeneration, blood vessels, organs, and skin regeneration are evaluated, in terms of in vivo and in vitro biocompatibility and biodegradability. The enhanced mechanical, thermal, and rheological properties of PLA biocomposites are analyzed in detail. PLA biocomposites for drug encapsulation, sustained release, and tumor-targeting are also reviewed. Furthermore, the challenges and future perspectives on PLA-based biocomposites are discussed.

Current applications of poly(lactic acid) composites in tissue engineering and drug delivery

As the largest organ in the human body, the skin has the function of maintaining balance and protecting from external factors such as bacteria, chemicals, and temperature. If the wound does not heal in time after skin damage, it may cause infection or life-threatening complications. In particular, medical treatment of large skin defects caused by burns or trauma remains challenging. Therefore, human bioengineered skin substitutes represent an alternative approach to treat such injuries. Based on the chemical composition and scaffold material, skin substitutes can be classified into acellular or cellular grafts, as well as natural-based or synthetic skin substitutes. Further, they can be categorized as epidermal, dermal, and composite grafts, based on the skin component they contain. This review presents the common commercially available skin substitutes and their clinical use. Moreover, the choice of an appropriate hydrogel type to prepare cell-laden skin substitutes is discussed. Additionally, we present recent advances in the field of bioengineered human skin substitutes using three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting techniques. Finally, we discuss different skin substitute developments to meet different criteria for optimal wound healing.

Bioengineered Skin Substitutes: Advances and Future Trends

Incorporating chitin derived glucosamine sulfate into nanofibers via coaxial electrospinning for cartilage regeneration.

Three different triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) with three levels of porosity within those of cancellous bone were investigated as potential bone scaffolds. TPMS have emerged as potential d...

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2041731420956541

Porous polylactic acid scaffolds for bone regeneration: A study of additively manufactured triply periodic minimal surfaces and their osteogenic potential:

Nanofibrous materials present unique properties favorable in many biomedicine and industrial applications. In this research we evaluated biodegradation, tissue response and general toxicity of nanofibrous poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds produced by conventional method of electrospinning and using NanoMatrix3D® (NM3D® ) technology. Mass density, scanning electron microscopy and in vitro degradation (static and dynamic) were used for material characterization, and subcutaneous, intramuscular and intraperitoneal implantation - for in vivo tests. Biochemical blood analysis and histology were used to assess toxicity and tissue response. Pore size and fiber diameter did not differ in conventional and NM3D® PLA and PCL materials, but mass density was significantly lower in NM3D® ones. Scaffolds made by conventional method showed toxic effect during the in-vivo tests due to residual concentration of chloroform that released with material degradation. NM3D® method allowed cleaning scaffolds from residual solutions that made them nontoxic and biocompatible. Subcutaneous, intramuscular and intraperitoneal implantation of PCL and PLA NM3D® electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds showed their appropriate cell conductive properties, tissue and vessels formation in all sites. Thus, NM3D® PCL and PLA nanofibrous electrospun scaffolds can be used in the field of tissue engineering, surgery, wound healing, drug delivery, and so forth, due to their unique properties, nontoxicity and biocompatibility. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 106A: 2200-2212, 2018.

In vitro degradation and in vivo toxicity of NanoMatrix3D® polycaprolactone and poly(lactic acid) nanofibrous scaffolds.

Tissue engineering combines cells, biomaterials and growth factors to support and regenerate biological tissues. The key objective of tissue engineering is to improve quality of life in a secure way by avoiding various adverse effects of several standard medical therapies [2] and replace or repair damaged tissues by creating new healthy niches enabling cells to grow, proliferate and differentiate [3]. There are also multiple attempts to generate new tissues and even entire organs in vitro, ready to be implanted into the diseased and mechanically damaged sites. This involves e.g. the simulation or mimicry of the extracellular matrix (ECM) [4]. Thus, patient-derived cells can be expanded in culture and prompted to differentiate into a specific tissue or organ, followed by transplantation in a patient with no need of another patientmatching cell/tissue/organ donor.

/pdf/tissue-engineering-challenges-and-selected-application-245h5vohxd.pdf

Tissue engineering: challenges and selected application

Nanofiber based materials present unique properties favourable in many biomedical applications and electrospinning technics is the most common for their production due to its capability to produce fibrous materials with their structure and fiber diameters similar to those of extracellular matrix. In this research we evaluated in-vitro degradation, tissue responce and general toxicity of nanofibrose PLA and PCL 3D scaffolds produced by conventional method of electrospinning and using NanoMatrix3D® technology. There were no significant difference in mass loss between conventional and NM3D® electrospun scaffolds both during the static and dynamic degradation test, but dynamic condition significant facilitate degradation rate, that mimic in-vivo non-enzymatic hydrolysis. PCL and PLA scaffolds made by conventional method have shown toxic effect during the in-vivo tests due to residual chloroform that released with material degradation. NM3D® method allows clean scaffolds from residual solutions that makes it non-toxic and biocompatible. Subcutaneous, intramuscular and intraperitoneal implantation of PCL and PLA NM3D® electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds show their appropriate cell conductive properties, tissue and vessels formation in all sites. Thus, NM3D® PCL and PLA nanofibrouse electrospun scaffolds could be used in the field of tissue engineering, surgery, wound healing, drug delivery etc. due to their unique properties, non-toxicity and biocompatibility.

NanoMatrix3D® technology in development of nanofibrouse scaffolds: Biomedical evaluation

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In vitro degradation and in vivo toxicity of NanoMatrix3D® polycaprolactone and poly(lactic acid) nanofibrous scaffolds.

Tissue engineering: challenges and selected application

NanoMatrix3D® technology in development of nanofibrouse scaffolds: Biomedical evaluation