Lignocellulosic wastes are the most promising feedstock, as they are the most inexpensive and abundantly renewable natural resource. The abundance of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose in feedstocks has been shown to be effective in eliminating persistent contaminants. Environmental issues, including the accumulation of agricultural waste, waste water treatment, and air pollution, could be resolved by producing value-added products like activated carbon from these wastes. Several biomass wastes were used to produce activated carbon using a two-step processing method that involved oxygen-free carbonisation and activation. This study examines the methods for making biochar from different lignocellulosic biomass sources. Furthermore, biochar modification significantly modifies surface area and pore volume. To determine the fundamental characteristics of biochar and to evaluate its potential for use in a variety of environmental applications, physical and chemical characterizations are required. Various widely used modern analytical techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and Raman spectroscopy, have been reviewed in this work. The potential mechanisms through which lignocellulosic biochars may absorb pollutants are outlined. In general, this review highlights the significance and potential of activated carbon formed from waste products for environmental remediation, demonstrating that biomass-originated activated carbon could have a significant impact on increasing economic viability and efficiently protecting the environment. 

A systematic review of lignocellulosic biomass for remediation of environmental pollutants

Activated carbon from chili straw: K2CO3 activation mechanism, adsorption of dyes, and thermal regeneration

A comprehensive review of enhanced CO2 capture using activated carbon derived from biomass feedstock

Corn stalk decorated with magnetic graphene oxide as an efficient adsorbent for the removal of cationic dye from wastewater

Isothermal, Kinetic, Thermal, and Economic Characteristics of NaOH-modified Charred–desiccated Coconut Waste as Adsorbent for Lead (II) in Water Phase

The concept of the "circular economy" aims to minimize waste generation, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions while maximizing the use of agricultural byproducts through economically viable approaches. In this research, coconut shell (CS), an agricultural waste was used to produce carbon composite materials via the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) technique at a low temperature. A novel CS-based activated carbon (CSAC) for the adsorption of cationic dye was prepared by incorporating graphene oxide (GO), iron oxide, and undergoing alkaline activation. Characterization revealed a well-developed porosity (MCSACSBET: 477.74 m2/g, and MGOCSACSBET: 278.19 m2/g) through HTC method, KOH activation, and GO-iron oxide impregnation. FTIR analysis indicated that the CS derived activated carbon produced from coconut shells contains oxygen-containing functional groups, such as hydroxyl (-OH) and carbonyl (CO). These functional groups has the potential to change the polarity, surface energy, adsorption energy, and energy bands of carbon materials. Various operating parameters affecting the dye adsorption performance, such as initial pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time, and initial dye concentration, have been evaluated. The batch adsorption study revealed that GO and iron oxide functionalized CSAC (MGOCSAC) exhibited higher adsorption performance compared to iron oxide only functionalized CSAC (MCSAC) in COD removal, color removal, and adsorption capacity under the optimum conditions. Reusability studies further confirmed that MGOCSAC retained its high adsorption capacity, with only a 2.9% efficiency drop after five adsorption-desorption cycles. Conversely, MCSAC exhibited an 8.3% decrease, while commercial AC demonstrated a 19.2% reduction. Adsorption using both MCSAC and MGOCSAC was observed to follow the nonlinear Langmuir and Elovich models, which suggested a monolayer chemisorption. Quantum calculations highlighted potential binding interactions between the electron-withdrawing groups in adsorbents and the electron-donating groups in dye molecules, or vice versa. Furthermore, the total production cost of CS-based adsorbents was found to be 10.0%–17.0% less than commercial AC. Overall, the findings suggest that the hydrothermally carbonized and GO-iron oxide functionalized activated carbon derived from coconut shell provides an efficient, and cost-effective solution for dye removal given its simple preparation process, excellent adsorption capacity, ease of separation and high reusability ability. 

Graphene oxide impregnated activated carbon derived from coconut shell through hydrothermal carbonization for cationic dye removal: Adsorptive performance, kinetics, and chemistry of interaction

Recent advances on the coconut shell derived carbonaceous material for the removal of recalcitrant pollutants: A review

Oxidant-assisted adsorption using lignocellulosic biomass-based activated carbon

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Graphene oxide impregnated activated carbon derived from coconut shell through hydrothermal carbonization for cationic dye removal: Adsorptive performance, kinetics, and chemistry of interaction

Recent advances on the coconut shell derived carbonaceous material for the removal of recalcitrant pollutants: A review

Oxidant-assisted adsorption using lignocellulosic biomass-based activated carbon