The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine.

'Freedom from hunger' and preventing obesity: the animal welfare implications of reducing food quantity or quality

The domestic dog has undergone extensive artificial se- lection resulting in an extreme diversity in body size, personality, life-history, and metabolic traits among breeds. Here we tested whether proactive personalities (high levels of activity, boldness, and aggression) are related to a fast "pace of life" (high rates of growth, mortality, and energy expenditure). Data from the literature provide preliminary evidence that artificial selection on dogs (through do- mestication) generated variations in personality traits that are cor- related with life histories and metabolism. We found that obedient (or docile, shy) breeds live longer than disobedient (or bold) ones and that aggressive breeds have higher energy needs than unaggressive ones. These correlations could result from either human preference for particular trait combinations or, more likely, correlated responses to artificial selection on personality. Our results suggest the existence of a general pace-of-life syndrome arising from the coevolution of personality, metabolic, and life-history traits.

/pdf/the-pace-of-life-under-artificial-selection-personality-4zje8tyrul.pdf

The pace of life under artificial selection: personality, energy expenditure, and longevity are correlated in domestic dogs.

The unique worldwide spread of the human species and the remarkably long post-reproductive survival show that our genome permits excellent adaptation to vastly different environments Moreover, the main scourges of later age, namely malignant growths and atherosclerosis, appear in humans later than in shorter-living animals In recent years, excess weight and obesity have become mass phenomena with a pronounced upward trend in all developed countries However, despite the detrimental effects of being overweight, these populations live longer than ever, which in part may be explained by the availability of better medical treatment The prevalence and predicted further spread of obesity can be understood in the light of evolution In all animal species energy metabolism is asymmetric with energy accumulation ('thrifty genotype') being the necessary condition of survival during hard times For humans, which are no different to other animals in this respect, this genetic programming was necessary for survival because during the course of history, including the recorded history in the more developed Middle East, Europe or China, there was never a long period of uninterrupted food abundance, whereas famines were regular and frequent Therefore fat accumulation, when food was available, meant survival at times of shortage, while the possible detrimental effects of overindulgence in food and being overweight expressed in unrealistically old age were irrelevant It is the central, mostly intra-abdominal fat (in both humans and animals) that is more medically important than the subcutaneous truncal fat, and the accumulation of both types of fat is conditioned by high food consumption; therefore it is a historic novelty for human populations In contrast, lower-body fat in human females is unique in the animal kingdom: it is much less metabolically active, it is of much lower pathologic significance than central fat, and it is programmed to be mobilized mostly during pregnancy and lactation In view of all this, norms of desired weight should be based on hard mortality and morbidity statistics and not on theoretical, esthetic or fashion considerations By this criterion, the upper limit of desirable weight is likely to be body mass index (BMI) 27 or 28, but specified for different populations (sex, race, ethnic origin); moreover, with aging, the detrimental effects of obesity diminish and finally disappear Risks of other pathologies related to obesity (eg diabetes, hypertension and coronary disease) are also population-specific However, total fatness, measured by BMI, is insufficiently sensitive as a risk factor, and fat distribution (upper-body versus low-body type, as reflected by waist circumference and waist:hip ratio) plays at least as prominent a role Therefore the detailed norms, not yet available, should take into account both general obesity and fat distribution and be specific for different populations Since long-term weight loss in adults is rarely achievable, public health measures should be aggressively directed at the prevention of obesity from childhood

Human obesity: an evolutionary approach to understanding our bulging waistline.

We report feeding studies on adult domestic cats designed to disentangle the complex interactions among dietary protein, fat and carbohydrate in the control of intake. Using geometric techniques that combine mixture triangles and intake plots from the geometric framework, we: (1) demonstrate that cats balance their macronutrient intake, (2) estimate the composition of the target balance and (3) reveal the priorities given to different macronutrients under dietary conditions where the target is unachievable. Our analysis indicates that cats have a ceiling for carbohydrate intake, which limits ingestion and constrains them to deficits in protein and fat intake (relative to their target) on high-carbohydrate foods. Finally, we reanalyse data from a previous experiment that claimed that kittens failed to regulate protein intake, and show that, in fact, they did. These results not only add to the growing appreciation that carnivores, like herbivores and omnivores, regulate macronutrient intake, they also have important implications for designing feeding regimens for companion animals.

Geometric analysis of macronutrient selection in the adult domestic cat, Felis catus

As a species, the dog is unique. Depending on the breed, body weight varies 100-fold from the 1-kg Chihuahua to the 115-kg St. Bernard (1). The time taken for a growing puppy to achieve adult body weight also varies considerably with larger breeds having a longer growth period than smaller breeds. Also the rate of growth during this period is not constant; energy requirements decrease from 3 times maintenance at weaning to1.2 times maintenance as the puppy approaches adulthood (1). The provision of accurate feeding guides is essential if under- and overnutrition are to be prevented. Overnutrition of dogs results in obesity, but in large breeds overnutrition also causes musculoskeletal disorders (2,3). However, present feeding guides are based on "typical" growth data that use only a single equation (4,5). Breed-specific differences in growth patterns might be expected due to huge variations in size, temperament, and coat type, all of which are likely to affect energy requirements. This was evident in a study of six breeds of puppies that demonstrated very different energy requirements despite similar absolute body weights in Great Danes versus Newfoundlands and Briards versus Labrador Retrievers (6). Little information is published on breed-specific variations in puppy growth patterns, and most studies provide only limited data on single breeds, for example, 8-34-mo-old and 6-20-wk-old Labrador Retrievers (7,9) and 0-12-wk-old German Shepherds (8). Other studies are confounded by the use of different groups of dogs to provide data for a variety of age groups (10). Comparisons between these studies are difficult due to differing data presentation and treatment. The aim of this study was to compare the complete growth curves of 12 different-sized dog breeds and to investigate a mathematical basis for the provision of breed-specific feeding guides.

/pdf/body-weight-changes-during-growth-in-puppies-of-different-2rdaiwnm5j.pdf

Body-weight changes during growth in puppies of different breeds.

It has been reported that daily fluid intake influences urinary dilution, and consequently the risk of urolithiasis in human subjects and dogs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of dietary moisture on urinary parameters in healthy adult cats by comparing nutritionally standardised diets, varying only in moisture content. A total of six cats were fed a complete dry food (6.3 % moisture) hydrated to 25.4, 53.2 and 73.3 % moisture for 3 weeks in a randomised block cross-over design. Urinary specific gravity (SG), urine volume, water drunk and total fluid intake were measured daily; relative supersaturation (RSS) for calcium oxalate (CaOx) and struvite was calculated using the SUPERSAT computer program. Cats fed the 73.3 % moisture diet produced urine with a significantly lower SG (P < 0.001) compared with diets containing 53.2 % moisture or lower. Mean RSS for CaOx was approaching the undersaturated zone (1.14 (sem 0.21); P = 0.001) for cats fed the diet with 73.3 % moisture and significantly lower than the 6.3 % moisture diet (CaOx RSS 2.29 (sem 0.21)). The effect of diet on struvite RSS was less clear, with no significant difference between treatment groups. Total fluid intake was significantly increased (P < 0.001) in the 73.3 % moisture diet (144.7 (SEM 5.2) ml, or 30 ml/kg body weight per d) compared with the 6.3 % (103.4 (SEM 5.3) ml), 25.4 % (98.6 (SEM 5.3) ml) and 53.3 % (104.7 (SEM 5.3) ml) moisture diets, despite voluntary water intake decreasing as dietary moisture intake increased. Cats fed the 73.3 % moisture diet had a higher total daily fluid intake resulting in a more dilute urine with a lower risk of CaOx when compared with the lower-moisture diets.

/pdf/effect-of-dietary-water-intake-on-urinary-output-specific-256f6of05x.pdf

Effect of dietary water intake on urinary output, specific gravity and relative supersaturation for calcium oxalate and struvite in the cat

A meta-analysis was carried out in order to establish the energy requirements of adult cats Publications that identified cat body weight (BW) were used to generate allometric relationships between energy requirements and BW of healthy adult cats, using log-log linear regression Energy requirements were expressed in kcal/kg BW to be consistent with those reported by the National Research Council Mean maintenance energy requirements were 55·1 (se 1·2) kcal/kg BW (115 treatment groups) Three allometric equations were identified to predict the energy requirements for maintenance of BW in the cat based on BW: light (53·7 kcal/kg BW− 1·061), normal (46·8 kcal/kg BW− 1·115) and heavy (131·8 kcal/kg BW− 0 ·366) When reported on lean mass, the allometric equation revealed maintenance requirements were 58·4 kcal/kg lean mass− 1·140 (adjusted R2 0·694; thirty-six treatment groups) The present review suggests that values for maintenance energy requirements based on BW alone may not be an accurate prediction and more detailed information on the age, sex and neuter status, BW and composition would enhance the ability to interpret the maintenance energy requirements of cats

/pdf/energy-requirements-of-adult-cats-3orsaaz2dg.pdf

Energy requirements of adult cats.

/pdf/dietary-sodium-promotes-increased-water-intake-and-urine-37d2uk7wui.pdf

Dietary Sodium Promotes Increased Water Intake and Urine Volume in Cats

A body fat measurement system for mammals includes means for measuring first and second body dimensions having a high correlation with body fat and low correlation respectively. A lookup table provides an output of the percentage body fat on input of the first and second dimensions.

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