Additive manufacturing of metallic components – Process, structure and properties

Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones

The production of metal parts via laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing is growing exponentially. However, the transition of this technology from production of prototypes to production of critical parts is hindered by a lack of confidence in the quality of the part. Confidence can be established via a fundamental understanding of the physics of the process. It is generally accepted that this understanding will be increasingly achieved through modeling and simulation. However, there are significant physics, computational, and materials challenges stemming from the broad range of length and time scales and temperature ranges associated with the process. In this paper, we review the current state of the art and describe the challenges that need to be met to achieve the desired fundamental understanding of the physics of the process.

Laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals; physics, computational, and materials challenges

A review of selective laser melting of aluminum alloys: Processing, microstructure, property and developing trends

Selective electron beam melting (SEBM) belongs to the additive manufacturing technologies which are believed to revolutionise future industrial production. Starting from computer-aided designed data, components are built layer by layer within a powder bed by selectively melting the powder with a high power electron beam. In contrast to selective laser melting (SLM), which can be used for metals, polymers and ceramics, the application field of the electron beam is restricted to metallic components since electric conductivity is required. On the other hand, the electron beam works under vacuum conditions, can be moved at extremely high velocities and a high beam power is available. These features make SEBM especially interesting for the processing of high-performance alloys. The present review describes SEBM with special focus on the relationship between process characteristics, material consolidation and the resulting materials and component properties.

Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting — a review

Evaporation plays an important role in many technical applications including beam-based additive manufacturing processes, such as selective electron beam or selective laser melting (SEBM/SLM). In this paper, we describe an evaporation model which we employ within the framework of a two-dimensional free surface lattice Boltzmann method. With this method, we solve the hydrodynamics as well as thermodynamics of the molten material taking into account the mass and energy losses due to evaporation and the recoil pressure acting on the melt pool. Validation of the numerical model is performed by measuring maximum melt depths and evaporative losses in samples of pure titanium and Ti–6Al–4V molten by an electron beam. Finally, the model is applied to create processing maps for an SEBM process. The results predict that the penetration depth of the electron beam, which is a function of the acceleration voltage, has a significant influence on evaporation effects.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/47/27/275303/pdf

Evaporation model for beam based additive manufacturing using free surface lattice Boltzmann methods

Numerical simulation of multi-component evaporation during selective electron beam melting of TiAl

Computational modelling of processes that involve highly energetic electrons like electron beam melting, welding, drilling or electron beam lithography, to name but a few, requires information about the attenuation of the electron beam as it passes through the sample. Depth–dose curves as a function of electron energy, target material as well as local surface obliquity have to be provided in situ during the calculation. The most efficient way to address this issue is by employing mathematical expressions. Therefore, we propose an electron beam model based on a set of semi-empirical equations available from different published literature and on theoretical considerations. Particular stress is thereby put on accuracy and the range of validity of the theoretical approach by comparison with experimental data. Finally, we apply our model to powder-bed based additive manufacturing. The numerical results demonstrate that electron beam absorption and depth of penetration have a strong influence on the quality of the fabricated product.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/47/6/065307/pdf

Modelling of electron beam absorption in complex geometries

In additive manufacturing using laser or electron beam melting technologies, evaporation losses and changes in chemical composition are known issues when processing alloys with volatile elements. In this paper, a recently described numerical model based on a two-dimensional free surface lattice Boltzmann method is further developed to incorporate the effects of multi-component evaporation. The model takes into account the local melt pool composition during heating and fusion of metal powder. For validation, the titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V is melted by selective electron beam melting and analysed using mass loss measurements and high-resolution microprobe imaging. Numerically determined evaporation losses and spatial distributions of aluminium compare well with experimental data. Predictions of the melt pool formation in bulk samples provide insight into the competition between the loss of volatile alloying elements from the irradiated surface and their advective redistribution within the molten region.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-651X/aa5289/pdf

A multi-component evaporation model for beam melting processes

Piezoceramic patch transducers are integrated into aluminum components using high-pressure die casting. Expanded metal has proven suitable as a supporting structure for placing the patch transducers inside the die cavity and for stabilization during the injection of molten metal. However, difficulties arise when the transducers are positioned off the neutral axis within the wall of the casting. Numerical simulations of the die filling are performed to analyse the evolution of the integration process. The asymmetric infiltration of the supporting structure is identified as the major factor contributing to the formation of cracks and perforations inside the piezoceramic transducer. By means of measurements and numerical calculations of the electrical impedance of the transducer, a close relation is established between mechanical damage patterns observed in radiographs of the patch transducers and loss of performance.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/21/11/115014/pdf

Influence of the fabrication process on the functionality of piezoceramic patch transducers embedded in aluminum die castings

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