We present annual estimates of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide (CO2) accumulated over one annual cycle (April 2012 to March 2013) in the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, Sundarbans (India), using the eddy covariance method. An eddy covariance flux tower was established in April 2012 to study the seasonal variations of carbon dioxide fluxes due to soil and vegetation-atmosphere interactions. The half-hourly maximum of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) varied from −6 µmol·m−2·s−1 during the summer (April to June 2012) to −10 µmol·m−2·s−1 during the winter (October to December 2012), whereas the half-hourly maximum of H2O flux varied from 5.5 to 2.5 mmol·m−2·s−1 during October 2013 and July 2013, respectively. During the study period, the study area was a carbon dioxide sink with an annual net ecosystem productivity (NEP = −NEE) of 249 ± 20 g·C m−2·year−1. The mean annual evapotranspiration (ET) was estimated to be 1.96 ± 0.33 mm·day−1. The gap-filled NEE was also partitioned into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Ecosystem Respiration (Re). The total GPP and Re over the study area for the annual cycle were estimated to be1271 g C m−2·year−1 and 1022 g C m−2·year−1, respectively. The closure of the surface energy balance accounted for of about 78% of the available energy during the study period. Our findings suggest that the Sundarbans mangroves are currently a substantial carbon sink, indicating that the protection and management of these forests would lead as a strategy towards reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.

Seasonal Variations of Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor and Energy Fluxes in Tropical Indian Mangroves

Mangrove ecosystems play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. However, the carbon fluxes in the mangrove ecosystems found in the Indian subcontinent are not well understood. Here, for the first time, we estimate the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) in a mangrove ecosystem at Pichavaram, southeast India, using the eddy covariance method for the period October 2017–September 2018. The half-hourly daytime NEE varied from −11.05 μmol m−2 s−1 in the winter months (January–March 2018) to −6.06 μmol m−2 s−1 during the summer (April 2018). The estimated annual evapotranspiration during the study period was 610 mm, whereas the precipitation was 653 mm (much dryer than the long-term average). The half-hourly NEE data were gap filled and partitioned to estimate the gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (Reco). The estimated annual GPP was 1466 gC m−2 and Reco was 1283 gC m−2. The mangrove forest appeared to be a modest sink of atmospheric CO2, with an annual average net ecosystem productivity of 183 gC m−2. However, in the summer months, it acted as a source. We observed that the mangrove CO2 fluxes strongly responded to environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, and salinity. However, it is noteworthy that the carbon sink capability may decline in the future due to rising temperatures, decreasing rainfall patterns, variation in salinity, and changes in tidal inundation patterns.

Seasonal variations of net ecosystem (CO2) exchange in the Indian tropical mangrove forest of Pichavaram

Multi-year eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange in tropical dry deciduous forest of India

The Indian summer monsoon is one of the most important yet less understood synoptic processes on the Earth, characterized by an increased amount of rainfall over the entire Indian landmass. The different types of forest ecosystems existing over the Indian region offer a tremendous carbon sequestration potential useful for the global mitigation of climate change as predicted by the modelling studies. The monsoon results in a strong seasonality of the ecosystem-atmosphere carbon exchange due to the differential availability of two key controlling parameters of photosynthesis namely radiation and water. However, due to the sparsity of surface observations neither the carbon sequestration potential of these ecosystems nor its relation with the monsoon has been analysed comprehensively so far. This paper studies the ecosystem-atmosphere CO2 exchange at a tropical semi-evergreen moist deciduous forest and its relation with the monsoon over north-east India using the eddy covariance and associated meteorological measurements. In 2016, this ecosystem acts as a net source of atmospheric CO2 with net ecosystem exchange of 207.51 ± 157.37 gC m−2 year−1 and gross photosynthesis and ecosystem respiration of 2604.88 ± 179.43 and 2812.38 ± 22.05 gC m−2 year−1, respectively. The monsoon clouds are seen to introduce a bimodal pattern in the annual GPP record. The pre-monsoon and winter are the most and least favourable seasons for the photosynthetic CO2 uptake by this forest canopy. Additionally, the rate of increase of photosynthesis with evapotranspiration is maximum and minimum during the pre-monsoon and winter, respectively.

/pdf/the-effect-of-indian-summer-monsoon-on-the-seasonal-2z0ixx4qqq.pdf

The effect of Indian summer monsoon on the seasonal variation of carbon sequestration by a forest ecosystem over North-East India

This study uses 1 yr of eddy covariance (EC) flux observations to investigate seasonal variations in evapotranspiration (ET) and surface energy budget (SEB) closure at a tropical semi-deciduous forest located in north-east India. The annual cycle is divided into four seasons, namely, pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. The highest energy balance closure (76%) is observed during pre-monsoon, whereas the lowest level of closure (62%) is observed during winter. Intermediate closure of 68% and 72% is observed during the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. Maximum latent heat flux during winter (
 $$\hbox {150 W m}^{-2}$$
 ) is half of the maximum latent heat (
 $$\hbox {300 W m}^{-2}$$
 ) flux during the monsoon. ET is a controlling factor of SEB closure, with the highest rates of closure corresponding to the periods of the highest ET. The Bowen ratio ranges from 0.93 in winter to 0.27 during the monsoon. This is the first time the role of ET in the seasonal variation of SEB closure has been reported for any ecosystem in north-east India using EC measurements.

/pdf/seasonal-variation-of-evapotranspiration-and-its-effect-on-2giga2aa7x.pdf

Seasonal variation of evapotranspiration and its effect on the surface energy budget closure at a tropical forest over north-east India

In the present study, we report initial results on analysis of carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), and energy fluxes (sensible and latent heat flux) over teak mixed deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh, central India, during winter (November 2011 and January 2012) and summer (February–May 2012) seasons using eddy covariance flux tower datasets. During the study period, continuous fast response measurements of CO2 ,H 2O and heat fluxes above the canopy were carried out at 10 Hz and averaged for 30 minutes. Concurrently, slow response measurements of meteorological parameters are also being carried out. Diurnal and seasonal variations of CO2 ,H 2O and heat fluxes were analysed and correlated with the meteorological variables. The study showed strong influence of leaf off and on scenario on the CO2 ,H 2O and energy fluxes due to prevalence of deciduous vegetation type in the study area. Maximum amount of CO2 was sequestered for photosynthesis during winter (monthly mean of −25 μmol/m 2 /s) compared to summer (monthly mean of −2 μmol/m 2 /s). Energy flux analysis (weekly mean) showed more energy being portioned into latent heat during winter (668 W/m 2 ) and sensible heat during summer (718 W/m 2 ).

/pdf/analysis-of-carbon-dioxide-water-vapour-and-energy-fluxes-3oa3dkdapn.pdf

Analysis of carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy fluxes over an Indian teak mixed deciduous forest for winter and summer months using eddy covariance technique

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Analysis of carbon dioxide, water vapour and energy fluxes over an Indian teak mixed deciduous forest for winter and summer months using eddy covariance technique